Chapter 1

Logic Gates
LECTURE # 4
 Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra

• All the identities of Boolean algebra can be

proved by mean of truth table.

• The first eight identities show the basic

relationship between a single variable and
itself.
Basic Identities

1. x +0 =x 10. xy = yx
2. x . 0 = 0 11. x +(y+z) = (x +y)+ z
3. x +1 = 1 12. x(yz) = (xy)z
4. x . 1 = x 13. x(y+z)= xy +xz
5. x +x = x 14. x(yz)= (xy)z
6. x . x =x 15.(x+y’)= x’y’
7. x+x’ = 1 16. (xy)’ = x’ +y’
8. x. x’ =0 17.(x’)’= x
9. x +y = y+x
 DeMorgan’s Theorem

• Theorem 1
– Complement of the sum is equal to
product of complements.
i.e. (x+y+…+N)’ = (x’y’… N’)

• Theorem 2
– Complement of the product is equal to
sum of complements.
i.e. (xyz… n)’ = x’ +y’+ … + n’
Theorem 1 According to DeMorgan’s first
theorem, a NOR gate is equivalent
to a bubbled AND gate.

NOR  Bubbled AND

(x+y+z)’ x’y’z’ = (x+y+z)’

x x
y y
z z

Two graphic symbols for NOR Gate

Theorem 2 DeMorgan’s Second Theorem states
that the NAND gate is equivalent to
a bubbled OR gate.

NAND
 Bubbled OR

(xyz)’ x’+y’+z’ = (xyz)’

x x
y y
z z
• Boolean Algebra manipulation is used to
simplify digital circuits.

• For eg. Consider the function

F= ABC +ABC’ +A’C (1)

• The above expression can be simplified

using Boolean algebra
F= ABC +ABC’ +A’C= AB(C+C’) +A’C
(2)
= AB +A’C

• The expression 1 requires 6 gates but the

simplified expression 2 requires only 4
gates.
 Complement of a Function or
Duality Theorem

• It states that starting with a Boolean

relation, another relation can be
derived by
– Changing all ORs to ANDs
– Changing all ANDs to ORs and
– Complementing 0s and 1s if any.
• For eg. Consider the following
expression and its complement:
F= AB +C’D’ +B’D
F’ = (A’+B’) (C+D) (B+D’)
 Universal gates
• NAND and NOR gates are called
Universal gates.
• Because all the other gates like
AND,OR,NOT,XOR and XNOR can be
derived from it.
• Ex: NOT, OR, and AND gates can be
realized by using NAND gates as shown
below:
• Implementing NOT gate using
NAND
• Implementing OR Using only
NAND Gates
The OR gate is replaced by a NAND
gate with all its inputs complemented
by NAND gate inverters
• Implementing AND Using only
NAND Gates
• An AND gate can be replaced by
NAND gates as shown in the
figure (The AND is replaced by a
NAND gate with its output
complemented by a NAND gate
inverter).
• Implement NOT, OR and AND
gates using NOR gates.
• Implementing an Inverter Using
only NOR Gate
• Implementing OR Using only NOR
Gates
• Implementing AND Using only
NOR Gates
 Map Simplification

• An expression may be simplified

using the basic relations of Boolean
algebra.
• But this procedure is sometimes
difficult.
• The K-map method provides a simple,
straight forward procedure for simplifying
Boolean expressions.

• This method is a pictorial arrangement of

table which allows an easy interpretation.

• The map method is known as Karnaugh

map or K-map.
• The K-map is a set of squares arranged in
a particular fashion to handle all the
combination of inputs.

• The number of squares in the map

depends on the number of various input
variables.

• Each combination of the variables in a truth

table is called a min term.
 Minterm and Max term
• A product term containing all the K
variables of the function in either
complemented or uncomplemented from is
called a Minterm.

• Eg: A two variable function has four possible

combinations viz. A’B’, A’B,AB,AB’
• A sum term containing all the
K variables of the function in
either complemented or
uncomplemented form is called a
Maxterm.
• A function of n variables will have 2n
min terms.

• For eg. If the function has only two

variables, the number of squares will
be 2n, ie 22 = 4.
 (A) K-map for two input variable.
B’ B
m0 m1
A’ B’
A’ A’ B
m2 m3
AB
A A B’

(B) K-map for three input variable.

00 01 11 10
B’C’ B’C BC BC’
m0 m1 m3 m2
0 A’ A’ B’ C’ A’ B’ C A’ BC A’ BC’

m4 m5 m7 m6
1 A A B’ C’ A B’ C ABC ABC’
(C) K-map for four input variable.

00 01 11 10
C’D’ C’D CD CD’
m0 m1 m3 m2
00 A’B’
m4 m5 m7 m6
01 A’B

m12 m13 m15 m14

11 AB
m8 m9 m11 m10
10 AB’
 Sum of Products (SOP)&
Product of Sum (POS)
• A logic function can be expressed in the
following forms:
• Sum of Products (SOP)-The logical sum of
two or more logical product terms is called
a sum of Products expression,
• It is basically an OR operator of AND
variables such as :
Y = AB+BC+AC
Y = AB+A’C+BC
• Product of Sum (POS)-A product
of sum expression is a logical
product of two or more logical
sum terms.

• It is basically an AND operation of

OR variables such as:
Y = (A+B)(B+C)(C+A’
Y = (A+B+C) (A+C’)
(b) Three variable function

A B C (Min term) Maxterm

0 0 0 A’B’C’ A+B+C
0 0 1 A’B’C A+B+C’
0 1 0 A’BC’ A+B’+C
0 1 1 A’BC A+B’+C’
1 0 0 AB’C’ A’+B+C
1 0 1 AB’C
A’+B+C’
1 1 0 ABC’
A’+B’+C
1 1 1 ABC
A’+B’+C’
 Canonical SOP expression

• It is defined as the logical sum of all

the minterms derived from the rows of
a truth table, for which the value of
the function is 1.

• It is also called the minterm canonical

form.
• For eg: Y= (0,5,6)
= m0+m5+m6
= A’B’C’ + AB’C + ABC’
 Cell grouping in K-map
• The grouping of adjacent cells can be
done provided they are of the same bit
value.
• The standard grouping are:
• Set of two cells – pairs
• Set of four cells – Quads
• Set of eight cells – Octets
• Set with maximum sixteen cells
These grouping are nothing but, 21, 22, 23, 24
cells
 SOP
Z= ∑A,B,C(1,3,6,7)

From red group we get product

term— A’BC
From green group we get product
term— AB 

Summing these product terms 

we get- 
Final expression (A’BC+AB) 
F(P,Q,R,S)=∑(0,2,5,7,8,10,13,15) 

From red group we get product

term— QS 
From green group we get product
term— 
Q’S’ 
Summing  these product terms 
we get- Final expression
(QS+Q’S’) 
• Simplify the following Boolean
functions in SOP forms by means of
3 and 4 variable K Map. Draw the
logic diagram.
• F(A, B, C)= (3,4,6,7)
• F(A, B, C)= (0,2,4,5,6)
• F(A, B, C)= (0,1,2,3, 4,5,6)
• F(A, B, C, D)= (0,1,2,6,8,9,10)
• F(A, B, C, D)= (0,1,2,5,8,9,10)
• F(A, B, C, D)= (0,2,8,9,10,11,14,15)
• F(W,X, Y, Z)= (2,3,4,5,6,7,11,14,15)
• F(W,X, Y, Z)= (0,1,2,3,7,8,10)
D(W,X, Y, Z)= (5,6,11,15)
 F(A, B, C)= (0,2,4,5,6) F(A, B, C)= (0,1,2,3, 4,5,6)

0 1 3 2 0 1 3 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
4 5 7 6 4 5 7 6
1 1 1 1 1 1
 F(A, B, C, D)= (0,1,2,5,8,9,10)
F(A, B, C, D)= (0,1,2,6,8,9,10)

0 1 3 2 0 1 3 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
4 5 7 6 4 5 7 6
1 1

11 12 13 14 11 12 13 14

8 9 7 10 8 9 7 10
1 1 1 1 1 1
 POS
F(A,B,C)=π(0,3,6,7)
F(A,B,C,D)=π(3,5,7,8,10,11,12,13) 
• Simplify the following Boolean functions
in POS forms by means of 3 and 4
variable K Map. Draw the logic diagram
• F(A, B, C,D)= (1,9,12,14)
• F(A, B, C,D)= (3,4,7,12)
• F(A, B, C,D)=  (5,7,12,13)
• F(A, B, C, D)= (0,2,3,4,6,7,8,12)
• F(A, B, C, D)= (0,1,2,4,5,7,10,15)
• F(A, B, C, D)= (4,5,7,13,14,15)
• F(W,X, Y, Z)= (0,1,2,3,8,9,10,11)
• F(W,X, Y, Z)= (1,3,4,6,9,11,12,14)
• F(W,X, Y, Z)= (0,2,3,4,6,7,8,12)
 Don’t Care Condition
• The 1’s and 0’s in the map represents the min
terms that make the function equal to 1 or 0.

• There are occasion when it does not matter if

the function produces 0 or 1 for a given min
term.

• Since the function may be either 0 or 1, we say

that we don’t care what the function output is to
be for this min term.
• While forming groups of cells, we
can consider a “Don’t Care” cell
as 1 or 0 or we can also ignore
that cell. Therefore, “Don’t Care”
condition can help us to form a
larger group of cells.
• Min term that may produce either 0 or 1 for
the function are said to be don’t care
condition and are marked with an ‘x’ in the
map.

• These don’t care can be used to provide

further simplification of the algebraic
expression.

• When choosing adjacent squares for the

function in the map, the x’s may be assumed
to be either 0 or 1, whichever gives the
simplified expression.
1.Minimise the following function in SOP minimal
form using K-Maps: 
f = m(1, 5, 6, 11, 12, 13, 14) + d(4)

f = BC' + BCD' + A'C'D + AB'CD

2. F(A, B, C, D) = m(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) + d(10, 11,12, 13,
14, 15)

F = (A'+ C)(B' + C')

3. F(A, B, C, D) = m(1, 2, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15) + d(0, 3,
5, 12) 

f = AC'D' + A'D + A'C + AB

END