Manufacturing Processes

Manufacturing
Something made from raw materials (unprocessed material in any form) using
hand/machineries.
Process
A series of actions (any machine operations) that you take in order to achieve a result
(to build product).
Goal
To provide the basic knowledge about the
fundamental manufacturing techniques employed to
convert any raw material (type and form of material)
into final product of desired shape and size.
 Workshop Practices
What is manufacturing?
Manufacturing is the production of product through the use of machinery, tools,
labour, and processing (biological or chemical) or formulation (Fig. 1). It is made from
Latin words manus (hand) and factus (make); which means made by hand.
Manufacturing adds value to the material. Examples (Fig.2):
• Converting iron ore to steel adds value
• Transforming sand into glass adds value
• Refining petroleum in to plastics adds value
Two basic types of manufacturing process:
Processing operation: Transforms a work material from one state of
Technical manufacturing process
completion to more advanced state.
 Operation that changes the geometry, property, or appearance of the
primary material.
Assembly operation: Join two or more components to create a new entity.

*Our prime purpose is to make hardware during the Manufacturing lab.

Economic manufacturing process
 Manufacturing Processes
What is Manufacturing Processes Cont.….
The manufacturing process is a sequence of operations in the design process where the
given raw material is converted and transformed into a finished product using human
effort/machines/techniques.

• Machines
• Tools
Raw Material Finished Product
• Human Effort
• Power

Manufacturing Process

Scrap/Waste
 Manufacturing Processes

product-oriented process/mass production

Electronic, automotive
Two different
Target audience focused (distinct) unit
production
Car, rail, airways

3D objects with
same functionality

Similar item production

Non-stop flow . Food, oil refining, paper industry
at a time. Bakery items
 Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing vs Production
• Use of raw material and machines to make finished product (manufacturing).
• Process in which machines may or may not be used to convert inputs into finished
goods (production).
Manufacturing
Production
•Casting
•Market survey
•Forming (reshaping- mechanical deformation without adding or removing material)
•Forecasting
•Joining
•Planning and sequencing
•Machining
•Purchasing
•Advanced Machining Processes
•Conversion or manufacturing
•Powder Metallurgy
•Storing and maintaining
•Surface working and coating
•Inspection and Quality control
•Rapid Prototyping.
•Packaging and delivery
•Feedback collection and analysis
Forming
Manufacturing Processes
 Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing vs Employment
 Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing Contribution in World’s GDP

GDP: It is a measure of the market value of all

the finished goods and services produced and
sold in a specific time period by any country.
 Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing Contribution in World’s GNP

• 2021~10.06 lakhs $

GNP: Total market value of the manufactured products by the residents

 Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing vs Maintenance
 Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing Industries
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Manufacturing Products
Final products divided into two major classes
1. Consumer Goods: Products purchase directly by consumers
• Cars, cloths, TV’s, tennis rackets
2. Capital Goods: These purchased by companies to produce goods or
provide services
• Aircraft, components, communication equipment, medical
apparatus, trucks, machine tools, construction equipment.
 Manufacturing Processes
Manufacturing Processes
Two basic types:
1. Processing Operations: Transforms a work material from one state of
completion to a more advanced state
• Operation that change the geometry, properties, or appearance of
the starting material

2. Assembly Operations: Join two or more components to create a new

entity
• Permanent – welding, soldering, adhesive joining, brazing ( joining by
filler metal). Semi-permanent: Screw, bolt, threaded fasteners, More
permanent fastener: Rivets
 Manufacturing Processes
Shops at NRTI…
1. Fitting Shop

Power Hacksaw Bench Vice

Drilling Machine Fitter Hand Tool

 Manufacturing Processes
2. Machine Shop

Pin making from a mild steel rod in a lathe

Lathe Machine
 Manufacturing Processes
3. Welding Shop

Butt Joint

Welding Tools Lap Joint

 Manufacturing Processes
4. Foundry Shop

Mold box with cope, drag, and cheek

Molding Sand
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5. Sheet Metal Shop

Tray Making
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6. Carpentry Shop
Making a cross lap (halved) joint
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Fitting Tools
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Fitting Tools
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Measuring and Marking Tools
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Measuring and Marking Tools
 Manufacturing Processes
Course Content…
1. Materials and Machining Processes
2. Casting, Forming, Powder Processing, Joining
3. Machining and failure of cutting tools
4. Microfabrication Process
5. Additive Manufacturing
6. Unconventional Machining Process
 Manufacturing Processes
Credit Requirement…
1. Manufacturing Processes (Theory) 4 Credit – 40 Hours
2. Manufacturing Processes (Lab) 1 Credit – 20 Hours
Marking System - Theory Session
Evaluation Method Marks
Continuous Evaluation based on Class Performance through Viva and 30
Test/Project Work
Mid Semester (Off-Line) 20
End Semester (Off-Line) 50

Marking System - Lab Session

Evaluation Method Marks
Lab Report on the Experiment Conducted – A4 Sheet 20
Mid Semester - Lab based experiment and Viva 30
End Semester – Project Work (Working Demonstration, Report and Viva) 50
 Manufacturing Processes
Project Work (Theory and Practical)…
Project work consists of the working model (prototype) of provided design.
The guidelines for the execution of the project is:
• For this project, 4 groups will be formed consisting of 10 students per
group.
• Students will be provided with basic materials, tools, and instruments to
start their projects.
• On the End Term Exam day, the students must demonstrate their project
in finished condition. This will be followed by viva-voice on the
project/mechanisms of machines/exercises performed in the lab.
 Manufacturing Processes
Project Work…
Thematic Area: Engineering Sciences.

Project involves
• Conceptual and Rough design – Soft copy
• Manufacturing drawing and Report – Hard copy
• Fabrication

Project Size: Medium (<50 CM)

Precision requirement: Scale, tolerances, surface finishing

 Manufacturing Processes
Materials requirement in Manufacturing – A design aspect
Some issues related to design of product:
Ex. Paper Clip (Clip shape: square or round, wire size: diameter, length)
Functional requirement: To hold paper with sufficient clamping force.

Materials Issues
Type of material. Stiffness (deflection/force) & strength (yield stress: stress to cause permanent deformation.
If it is too strong, a lot of force will be required but if it is too weak, it may not work in holding the papers, etc.)

Aesthetic issues
Style, appearance and surface finish of the clip. Corrosion resistance is also required (subjected to moisture
and other environmental attack)

Production issues
Quality to be produced: tens, hundreds, ……., millions
Can the wire be bent without cracking/breaking?
Smooth edge or burr (undesirable raised edge)
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Materials in Manufacturing

Eg. AlMgSi, AlMg, AlCuSiMn Aluminum polymer composite

(APC) material, Au/AG polymer
Metals
Metal-ceramic Metal-polymer
composites composites Materials chemistries are different, and
their mechanical and physical properties
are different.
Ceramics Polymers
These differences affect the manufacturing
processes that can be used to produce
products from them.

Ceramic-polymer composites
Eg. graphite/epoxy, boron/epoxy
 Manufacturing Processes
Metals
Usually alloys, which are composed of two or more elements, at least one
of which is metallic. Two basic groups:
1. Ferrous metals - based on iron, comprises about 75% of metal
tonnage in the world:
• Steel and cast iron
2. Nonferrous metals - all other metallic elements and their alloys:
• Aluminum, brass (Cu+Zn), bronze (Cu+Sn), copper, nickel, silver, tin,
etc.
 Manufacturing Processes
Metals
Charging a Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF vessel) in steelmaking:
Molten pig iron is poured at Temperatures around 1650 ᵒC (3000F).
• Blowing oxygen lowers the carbon content of the alloy
and any other impurities/chemicals present in the BOF. *MnO, CaO can also be used in BOF

Limestone and dolomite are chemical bases and added

to promote the removal of impurities and protect the
lining of the converter.
• Molten Pig Iron - It is an intermediate product
received after smelting (it is a process of
applying heat and chemical reducing agent to
decompose the ore, to extract a base metal) of
iron - ore in a Blast Furnace.
• Molten Pig iron is casted in the form of chunky
molded blocks known as pigs. However, it is not
useful for direct applications due to the adverse
effect of its properties.
 Manufacturing Processes
Metals
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Metals - Applications
• Electrical wiring
• Structures: buildings, bridges, etc.
• Automobiles: body, chassis, springs, engine block, etc.
• Airplanes: engine components, fuselage, landing gear assembly, etc.
• Trains: rails, engine components, body, wheels
• Machine tools: drill bits, hammers, screwdrivers, saw blades, etc.
• Magnets

Examples
• Pure metal elements (Cu, Fe, Zn, Ag, etc.)
• Alloys (Cu-Sn=bronze, Cu-Zn=brass, Fe-C=steel, Pb(lead)-Sn(tin)=solder)
• Intermetallic compounds (e.g. Ni3Al)
*Intermetallic compounds: Any of a class of substances composed of definite proportions of two or more elemental metals
 Manufacturing Processes
Metals – Applications
• Intermetallic compounds (e.g. Ni3Al – Nickel Aluminide microstructure for automotive
body application)
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Ceramics
Compounds containing metallic (or semi-metallic; brake pads) and nonmetallic
elements.
• Typical nonmetallic elements are oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon
• Metallic ceramics (CERMET) are:
• Oxide based cermets (alumina, zirconia, magnesium oxide, beryllium oxide and tungsten,
chromium or cobalt)
• Carbide based cermets (Titanium carbide, silicon carbide, tungsten carbide and other metals
as the matrix, and metal cobalt, nickel, chromium, tungsten, molybdenum composite)
• Boride cermet (TiB2, ZrB2 and CrB2 are considered as the most promising boride ceramics)
• For processing, ceramics divide into:
a. Crystalline ceramics – includes:
• Traditional ceramics, such as clay, and modern ceramics, such as alumina (Al2O3)
b. Glasses (non crystalline) – mostly based on silica (SiO2)
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Ceramics
1. Atomic scale structure of (a) glass (nanocrystalline) and (b) ceramic
(crystalline)
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Ceramics
Distinguishing features
• Composed of a mixture of metal (Cr, Co, WC) and nonmetal atoms
• Lower density than most metals
• Stronger than metals
• Low resistance to fracture: low toughness or brittle
• Low ductility or malleability
• High melting point
• Poor conductors of electricity and heat
• Except for glasses, atoms are regularly arranged
 Manufacturing Processes
Ceramics
Distinguishing features
• While metals react readily with chemicals in the environment and have
low application temperatures in many cases, ceramics do not suffer from
these drawbacks.
• Ceramics have high-resistance to environment as they are essentially
metals that have already reacted with the environment, e.g. Alumina
(Al2O3) and Silica (SiO2, Quartz).
• Ceramics are heat resistant. Ceramics form both crystalline and non-
crystalline phases because they can be cooled rapidly from the molten state
to form glassy materials.
 Manufacturing Processes
Ceramics
Applications
• Electrical insulators
• Abrasives
• Thermal insulation and coatings
• Windows, television screens, optical fibers
• Corrosion resistant applications
• Biocompatible coatings (fusion to bone)
• Magnetic materials (audio/video tapes, hard disks, etc.)
• Night-vision

Examples
• Simple oxides (SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, MgO)
• Mixed-metal oxides (SrTiO3, MgAl2O4)
• Nitrides (Si3N4, AlN, GaN, BN, and TiN, which are used for hard coatings)
*Sr: Strontium 
 Manufacturing Processes
Polymers
Compound formed of repeating structural units called mers, whose atoms
share electrons to form very large molecules
Polymer usually consists of carbon plus one or more elements such as
hydrogen and nitrogen
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Polymers
Distinguishing features
• Composed primarily of C and H (hydrocarbons).
• Low melting temperature.
• Most are poor conductors of electricity and heat.
• Many have high plasticity.
• A few have good elasticity.
• Some are transparent, some are opaque
• Polymers are attractive because they are usually lightweight and inexpensive to
make, and usually very easy to process, either in molds, as sheets, or as coatings.
• Most are very resistant to the environment
• They are poor conductors of heat and electricity, and tend to be easy to bend,
which makes them very useful as insulation for electrical wire
 Manufacturing Processes
Polymers
Three categories of polymers:
1. Thermoplastic polymers - can be subjected to multiple heating and cooling cycles without
substantially altering molecular structure. Eg. polyethylene jug, PVC, nylon and sealing wax

2. Thermosetting polymers - molecules chemically transform into a rigid structure – cannot

reheat. Eg. Epoxy resins and polycarbonates and Bakelite.

3. Elastomers - shows significant elastic behavior. Eg. Rubber bands, bunaS, buna-N and
neoprene

Applications and Examples

Adhesives and glues, Containers, Moldable products (computer casings, telephone handsets,
disposable razors), Clothing and upholstery material (vinyls, polyesters, nylon), Water-
resistant coatings (latex), Biodegradable products (corn-starch packing “peanuts”),
Biomaterials (organic/inorganic interfaces), Liquid crystals, Low-friction materials (teflon),
Synthetic oils and greases, Gaskets and O-rings (rubber), Soaps and surfactants.
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Composites
Material consisting of two or more phases that are processed separately
and then bonded together to achieve properties superior to its constituents
• Phase - homogeneous mass of material, such as grains of identical unit
cell structure in a solid metal
• Usual structure consists of particles or fibers of one phase mixed in a
second phase
• Properties depend on components, physical shapes of components, and
the way they are combined to form the final material.
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Composites
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Composites
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Composites
Distinguishing features
• Composed of two or more different materials (e.g., metal/ceramic, polymer/polymer, etc.)
• Properties depend on amount and distribution of each type of material
• Collective properties more desirable than possible with any individual material

Applications
• Sports equipment (golf club shafts, tennis rackets, bicycle frames)
• Aerospace materials
• Thermal insulation
• Concrete
• "Smart" materials (sensing and responding)
• Brake materials

Examples
Fiberglass (glass fibers in a polymer); space shuttle heat shields (interwoven ceramic fibers); paints (ceramic
particles in latex); tank armor (ceramic particles in metal)
 Manufacturing Processes
Composites
Advantages
• Composites can have a unique property (e.g. Specific strength, specific modulus, improved
impact resistance) that is significantly higher than their metal, polymer, and ceramic
counterparts.
• Composites can be fabricated to a final product from raw materials eliminating many secondary
operations such as machining, shaping, joining etc. (Reduce structural weakness and processing
costs).
• Composites can be tailored to have both high strengths and high strains.

Disadvantages
• The costs of the materials are generally higher.
• The nature and the amount of reinforcing elements and matrix will limit the usage of that
composite.
• Some environmental concerns (e.g. Solvents, chemical fumes, airborne fibers, etc.) can be
involved during the processing of composites.
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Shape Memory Materials
Shape Memory Materials (SMM) are those materials which, after being
deformed PLASTICALLY (i.e., PERMANENTLY) at the room temperature into
various shapes, return to their original shapes upon heating.

Examples:
Typical Shape Memory Alloys are
• 55% Ni-45%Ti
• Copper-Aluminum-Nickel
• Copper-Zinc-Aluminum
• Iron-Manganese-Silicon
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Shape Memory Materials
Characteristics:
• SMM have good ductility, good corrosion resistance, high electrical
conductivity
• Behavior of SMM can also be reversible, i.e., shape can switch back and
forth upon heating
Applications:
It can be used
• To generate motion and/or force in temperature-sensitive actuators
• Eyeglass frames, connectors, clamps and fasten
 Manufacturing Processes
Piezoelectric Materials
Piezoelectric materials are capable to produce electric energy upon
application of mechanical stress.
Piezoelectric crystals are solid ceramic compound that produce
piezoelectric effect (the ability of certain materials to generate an electric
charge in response to applied mechanical stress).

Piezoelectric materials: crystals (e.g., SiO2

, lead zirconate titanate (PZT)), polymers
(e.g., polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)),
semiconductors (e.g., ZnO and GaN), and
biological molecules (e.g., DNA).
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Piezoelectric Materials
Natural Piezoelectric materials: Berlinite (structurally identical to quartz
(SiO2)), cane sugar, quartz, Rochelle salt, topaz, tourmaline, and bone.
Synthesized materials (crystals): Rochelle salt, barium titanate and lead
zirconate.
 Manufacturing Processes
Biomaterials
A biomaterial can be defined as any substance (other than a drug) or
combination of substances synthetic or natural in origin, which can be used
for any period of time, as a whole or as a part of a system which treats,
augments, or replaces any tissue, organ or function of the body.

Theoretically, any material can be a biomaterial as long as it serves the

stated medical and surgical purposes.
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Biomaterials
Orthopedic Applications
• Metallic materials are normally used for load bearing members such as pins and
plates and femoral stems etc.
• Ceramics such as alumina and zirconia are used for wear applications in joint
replacements.
• Polymers such as ultra high molecular weight polyethylene are used as articulating
surfaces against ceramic components in joint replacements.
Dental Applications
• Metallic biomaterials have been used as pins for anchoring tooth implants and as
parts of orthodontic devices.
• Ceramics have found uses as tooth implants including alumina and dental porcelains.
• Polymers, have are also orthodontic devices such as plates and dentures.
 Manufacturing Processes
Biomaterials
Cardiovascular Applications
Many different biomaterials are used in cardiovascular applications
depending on the specific application and the design.
For instance, carbon in heart valves and polyurethanes for pacemaker
leads.

Cosmetic Surgery
Materials such as silicones have been used in cosmetic surgery.
 Manufacturing Processes
Whether Losses Results
from Material Wear???

• Is it Friction??..
• Filing a workpiece
• Drilling a hole
• Metal cutting
• Sharpening
• Casting/joining
Friction: Friction is resistance to motion during sliding or rolling.

Friction types
• Dry friction (Contact forces that exist between two dry surfaces/relative to each other)
• Fluid friction (Contact forces that exist between adjacent layers in a fluid moving at different velocities)
where, λ = Film thickness ratio
σ = Roughness ratio
Static Friction Dynamic
Friction

Forms of friction types

• Static friction (A small amount of force will not be able to move surface, i.e. no motion between the surface)
• Dynamic friction (A little enhancement in the force will result in break-free from the initial stage)

Laws of friction
I. Friction force is directly proportional to the normal load Leonardo da Vinci (1452)/G. Amontons (1699)
II. Friction force does not depend on the apparent area of contact
III. Friction force is independent of velocity (Coulomb’s Law, 1785) Stick slip: Friction force do not remain constant as a function of time and produces a
oscillation.
 Stages of Friction
• At the first stage, friction rises enormously due to sudden applied load and pressure
• At second stage of sliding, particles adhere to the ball or substrate side and raise the friction coefficient again
• At the third stage, a dense protective film starts forming between the surface and the ball material
• At the fourth stage, this protective film is stable and acts as a self-lubricant between the contact pairs

High friction Angle of Repose

area Consider an inclined plane on which an
object is placed, For small angles of θ, the
object may not slide down. As θ is
increased, the object begins to slide
down. This value is called angle of repose.
Hence, the angle of repose is the angle of
inclined plane with the horizontal such
Low friction that an object placed on it begins to slide.
area
Surface Roughness
Surface roughness is the measure of the finely spaced micro-irregularities
(asperities) on the surface texture which is composed of three components, namely
roughness, waviness, and lay.
Waviness: Waviness is the measure of surface
irregularity with a spacing greater than of surface
roughness. Waviness includes all irregularities
whose spacing is greater than the roughness
sampling length. Example: machining process.
Lay: Lay is the principal direction of the
predominant surface pattern, ordinarily determined
by the production method. Lay is the machining
pattern of the surface it may be parallel, circular, or
multi-directional.
Flaws: Flaws are unintentional, unexpected, and
unwanted interruptions in the texture.
Wear: Wear is a loss of materials per unit volume under applied load, while two
surface interacts with each other during sliding/rolling motion.
Archard Wear Equation: kWL/H
where, k = wear coefficient (ranges from 10^-1 to 10^-7), W = applied load, L =
sliding distance, and H = hardness of the softer material.
Type of Wear
• Abrasive wear: A harder surface comes in contact with the soft surface and due
to applied load/pressure it results in two body/three body abrasive wear.

• Adhesive wear: This is caused by the cohesive forces, during sliding soft material
attached/stick to the hard surface and result in adhesive wear.
Fatigue wear: Fatigue wear, in which very high local stresses act on a surface
repeatedly for long duration with/without lubricant film.

Fretting wear: During fretting, a small amount of cyclic stress (amplitude 1- 300
micron) on the surface causes micro welding or spot damage.
Erosive wear: Erosive wear is loss of material from a solid surface due to relative motion in
contact with a fluid which contains solid particles impingement by a flow of sand, or collapsing
vapour bubbles.

Corrosive wear: Corrosive wear is an attack on a material surface within its environment.
Corrosive wear can be either be wet or dry depending on the type of environment present for a
particular reaction.

Cavitation wear: Cavitation wear (intergranular corrosion) occurs from the collapse of cavitation
bubbles. When a cavitation bubble collapses, the surrounding liquid rushes to refill the void and
collides with the material surface.
Lubrication: Lubrication is a process employed to reduce friction and wear of
moving surfaces by interposing a lubricant film between them.

Bearing running condition

(i) Both surfaces of journal and bearing in good contact
(ii) Due to sudden starting bearing tries to climb-up where, S: Sommerfeld
(iii) Bearing displaces from the centre (non-concentric) number, r: shaft radius,
c: radial clearance, µ:
(iv) Fluid-film wedge maintained due to this eccentricity oil viscosity, N: rotating
shaft speed, rev/s, P:
Parameters affecting film thickness load per unit projected
 Increase in velocity increases film thickness bearing area.
 Increase in viscosity increases film thickness
 Increase in load decreases film thickness
 Increase in temperature decreases film thickness
Stribeck Curve
Rail lubrication: Wear of rail components/parts need proper attention
for its effective life.
Lubrication of track components:
Elastic rail clip (ERC)
Problem: Corrosion and seizure
Material: Graphite grease

Linear contact area

Problem: Corrosion
Material: Graphite grease

Switch Expansion Joint Graphite structure

Problem: Corrosion and thermal expansion (Long Welded Rail)
Material: Graphite grease

Rail joint
Problem: Wear on the fishing planes of the rails and fish plate
Material: Plumbago (Dry graphite powder)
Kerosine oil (second quality)
Black or reclaimed oil (only for bolts and nuts)

Catenary wire
Problem: Galvanic corrosion due to aluminum and copper
Material: Graphite
Application Product Characteristics

Track Carbon-
Grease
Lubrication for mobility:
mechanisms lithium
Operations optimized over wide working temperature ranges
Catenary
wires
Graphite
20 %
Grease Costs savings
Second-generation grease
Biodegradable
Sprayable and biodegradable, it is Low regressing interventions
Bio- characterized by greasing
degrada intervals of 4 to 5 weeks. It is very Limits wear and friction on wheel flanges
ble resistant to wash-out and
Switch ultraviolet. Reduction of noise disturbance
plates
Optimizes longevity of equipment
Bio-
degrada First-generation grease
ble Applications Products Characteristics

Limits wear and noise. Buffers /

Track side GR 439 G Grease
Bio- Biodegradable lubricants of Coupling screws
equipment /
Wheel degrada different grades for fixed
ble stationary or on-board lubrication Bogie axles,
flanges systems parts / TGV GR 196 B Anti corrosion and wash-out resistant greases
sharf
WF G 495 /
Wheel flanges BioNaturW Biodegradable lubricants for lubrication of on-board
systems
F68 Oil
Lubrication for tracks:
Operations optimized over wide Brake rigging GR291T Graphite oil

working temperature ranges Tripods

LI 152 EP Grease for lubrication of tripod-type transmissions of
MO TGVs
Economical ways for operation
Limits wear and friction on wheel
flanges
Reduction of noise disturbance
Optimizes longevity of equipment
How to enhance lubrication performance?
i. Nanomaterials suspension with oil
ii. Nanomaterials suspension with water
iii. Nanoparticle based grease
 Nanoparticle can act as an additive and achieve low friction and wear requirements with achieving the
hydrophobic properties in some extent
 Additional particles/solution may added to achieve the benefits of additives

Oil medium suspension with additives

Water medium suspension with additives
Oil + stearic acid (C18H36O2) +
lithium hydroxide (LiOH.H2O)

Nanoparticle based grease lubrication

 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Classification of casting process
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Casting
It is a manufacturing process in which a liquid material is usually poured into a mold, which contains a hollow cavity of
the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify to build part.
Gating system: Assembly of sprues, runners, gates and individual casting cavities in the mold.
Gate: An opening between the runner and part cavity that starts the molten metal into the cavity and feeds the
casting as it solidifies.
Riser: A reservoir built into a metal casting mold to prevent cavities due to shrinkage.
Runner: directs the molten metal towards the individual part of mold cavity.
Core: A core is a sand or metal insert used to shape any
part of a casting that cannot be shaped by the primary
removable pattern.
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting

Sand
casting
steps
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Steps for sand casting (Fundamentals)
1. Pattern making
2. Sand making
3. Mold making
4. Core making
5. Metal making
Sand casting
6. Pouring
7. Solidification
8. Machining
9. Quality investigation

Interestingly, every steps boils down to solidification…..and everything is intimately related…

 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Complex, 3-D shapes
• Near net shape
• Low scrap
• Relatively quick process
• Intricate shapes
• Large hollow shapes
• No limit to size
• Reasonable to good surface finish
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting – Components

Typical metal match plate pattern used

in sand casting

Taper used in patterns for ease of

removal from the sand mold
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Casting
Sand making
Plastic mixture of sand grains, clay (bentonite - soft plastic clay consisting
predominantly of montmorillonite, a fine particle-sized hydrous aluminum
silicate), water and other materials such as graphite powder: molding sand.

Sand muller

Bentonite powder
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Casting
Type of base sand Binders or Binding Agents
• Silica sand The binding agents are the glue that
• Olivine sand holds the sand particles together. The
following are the most frequent types of
• Chromite sand
binders:
• Zircon sand Clay and water
• Chamotte sand Oil
Resin
Sodium silicate
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Casting
Cores – made of sand aggregates
› Possess:
• Strength
• Permeability
• Ability to withstand heat
• Collapsibility
› Anchored by core points
› Chaplets are used to keep the core from moving

*Permeability: Measure of the ease of passage of liquids or gases or specific chemicals through the material
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Cores – made of sand aggregates
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting Engine manifold

Turbine blade

Dhokra art form

 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Metals processed by casting
• Sand casting – 60%
• Permanent mold casting – 11%
• Die casting – 9%
• Investment casting – 7%
• Centrifugal casting – 7%
• Shell mold casting – 6%
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Sand molding machines:
› Vertical flaskless molding
› Sandslinger
› Impact molding
› Vacuum molding

Sand-casting operation
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Pouring
Metal casting
• Quickest
• Least expensive
• Near net shape product
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting

Gibbs free energy: is a

Undercooling:
quantity used to
When a substance
measure the maximum
is cooled below its
amount of work done
equilibrium
in a thermodynamic
temperature.
system when the
temperature and
pressure are constant.
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting - Solidification
• The probability of nucleation occurring at point in the parent phase is
same throughout the parent phase
• In heterogeneous nucleation there are some preferred sites in the parent
phase where nucleation can occur

*Nucleation: phase change

in metal
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting - Cooling curve for pure metal

Isotherm: same temperature at all point

Recalescence: increase in temperature occurs while cooling metal when
change in structure with increase in thermal energy/entropy occurs.
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Microstructure

Columnar grains are long, thin, Equiaxed crystals are

coarse grains created when a crystals that have axes of
metal solidifies approximately the same
length in all direction.
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Casting
Dendrite microstructure
It is a tree-like structure of crystals growing as molten metal solidifies. The
process is too quick to form dendrites. Rapid dendrite growth is realized by
the rapid movement of the liquid/solid interface toward the undercooled
melt.
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Direction solidification
• In order to avoid shrinkage problem
• Furthest section solidify first and riser solidifies last
• Directional solidification aspect of freezing and methods by which it is
controlled……..(chills are used to incorporate directional solidification)
• Chills – internal or external heat sinks that cause rapid freezing in certain
regions of the casting (thin section where V/A ratio is highest)
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Phase change and shrinkage

Shrinkage cavity: This defect is a

depression in the surface or an
internal void in the casting, caused by
solidification shrinkage that restricts
the amount of the molten metal
available in the last region to freeze. It
often occurs near the top of the
casting, in which case it is referred to
as “pipe”. The problem can often be
solved by proper riser design.
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Casting
Shrinkage
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Defects in casting

(Erosion of mold parts by liquid metal)

(irregular line or crack)
(contaminants)
(cracking on sand
upper surface) (Slag inclusion)
*Shift: Mismatching of
(long, broad shallow depression) the top and bottom
parts of a casting
*Scab: Rough, thin layer of a metal, protruding above the casting surface, on top of a thin layer of sand.
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Defects in casting
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Pipe defect
Due to shrinkage giving rise to a funnel-like cavity
• Solutions
– insulate top (glass wool)
– heat top (exothermic mixture - thermite)

Thermite: Metal powder and metal oxide

*Exothermic: Reaction in which energy is released in the form of light or heat

 Manufacturing Processes
Casting

Misruns: A misrun is a casting that has solidified

before completely filling the mold cavity. Typical
causes include (1) fluidity of the molten metal is
in sufficient, (2) pouring temperature is too low,
(3) pouring is done too slowly, and or (4) cross
section of the mold cavity is too thin.

Cold shut: Occurs when two portions of the metal

flow together but there is lack of fusion between
them due to premature freezing. Its causes are
similar to those of a misrun.
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Cold shots: When splattering (noise drop) occurs during
pouring, solid globules (small drop) of metal are formed and
that become entrapped in the casting. Pouring procedures and
gating system designs that avoid splattering can prevent this
defect.
Microporosity: This refers to a network of small voids
distributed through the casting caused by localized
solidification shrinkage of the final molten metal in the
dendrites structure. The defect is usually associated with alloys,
because protracted (longer duration) manner in which freezing
occurs in these metals.
Hot tearing: this defect also called Hot cracking, occurs when
the casting is restrained from contraction by an unyielding mold
during the final stages of solidification or early stages of cooling
after solidification. The defect is manifested as a separation of
metal (hence, the terms tearing or cracking) at a point of high
tensile stress caused by the metal’s inability to shrink naturally.
In sand casting and other expendable mold processes, hot
tearing is reduced by removing the part from the mold
immediately after freezing.
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Some defects are related to the use of sand molds, and
therefore they occur only in sand castings.
Sand blow: This defect consist of a balloon shaped gas cavity
caused by release of mold gases during pouring. It occurs at
or below the casting surface near the top of the casting. Low
permeability, poor venting , and high moisture content of the
sand mold are the usual causes.
Pinhole: A defect similar to sand blow involves the formation
of many small gas cavities at or slightly below the surface of
the casting.
Sand wash: A wash is an irregularity in the surface of the
casting that results from erosion of the sand mold during
pouring. The contour of the erosion is imprinted into the
surface of the final cast part.
Scab: This is a rough area on the surface of the casting due to
encrustations (crust/coating) of sand and metal. It is caused
by portions of the mold surface flaking off during
solidification and becoming imbedded in the casting surface.
 Manufacturing Processes
Casting
Molds crack: If mold strength is insufficient, a crack
may develop, into which liquid metal can seep to form
a “fin” on the final casting.
Penetration: When the fluidity of the liquid metal is
high, it may penetrate into the sand mold or sand
core. After freezing, the surface of the casting consists
of a mixture of sand grains and metal. Harder packing
of the sand mold helps to alleviate this condition.
Mold shift: This is manifested as a step in the cast
product at the parting line caused by sidewise
displacement of the cope with respect to the drag.
Core shift: A similar movement can happen with the
core, but the displacement is usually vertical. Core
shift and mold shift are caused by buoyancy of the
molten metal
 Manufacturing Processes
Other Casting Process
Shell Molding

Shell moulding is an
expendable process in nature
which utilizes resin covered
sand to form the mould. It is
the preferred method of
casting for delicate and
accurate applications. It
provides higher dimensional
accuracy, high productivity and
is economical at the labour
end also.
 Manufacturing Processes
Other Casting Process
Investment casting
 Manufacturing Processes
Other Casting Process
Permanent mold casting

1. Mold is preheated and

coated
2. Cores (if used) are inserted
and mold is closed
3. Molten metal is poured
into the mold, where it
solidifies
4. Mold is opened
5. Finished part received
 Manufacturing Processes
Other Casting Process
Die casting
 Manufacturing Processes
Other Casting Process
Slip casting
 Workshop Practices
Material Joining
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Classification of welding
Pressure (forge) welding (solid state welding – No filler metal; no melting):
Forge welding is a process of joining metals by heating them beyond a certain threshold and forcing them together with enough
pressure to cause deformation of the weld surfaces, creating a metallic bond between the atoms of the metals. Heat can be
generated either via an electrical current (resistance welding) or by friction (friction welding).
Non-pressure (fusion) welding:
In the fusion welding or no pressure welding process, the material at the joint is heated to a molten state and allowed to solidify.
These welding are also known as liquid state welding process. This includes gas welding, arc welding, thermite welding (railroad
rails – aluminum is used) etc.

(By compression
1–15°-RDX –
Research
Department
eXplosive)
 Workshop Practices
Welding process
Welding is a metal joining process wherein localized coalescence (joining) is produced
either by heating the metal to a suitable temperature, with or without filler metal,
with or without applying pressure.
The filler material has a similar compositional melting point temperature as the base
metal. It is used to fill the gap between the joining surfaces.
Weldability is the ability of any material (usually metals and its alloys) to weld with
similar materials.

Many metals and thermoplastics (changes with

temperature) can be welded together to
fabricate a final material that is required
further in the fabrication process or any other
industrial process.
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Welding process
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Types of weld joint
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Types of weld joint
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Physics of welding
Power Density (PD) = P/A
Where, P = Power entering the surface (Watt)
A = Surface area over which energy is entering

Minimum power density required to melt most metals in welding is about 10 W/mm 2

High power density is an essential criteria because:

1. Quick melting of base metal or filler metal is crucial
2. To avoid metallurgical damage (Defects)

What are the defects that can arise because of prolong heating?
Hint: Think about welding of stainless steel (example)
 Workshop Practices
Physics of welding
Quantity of heat required to melt a given volume of metal is the sum of
1. Heat to reach melting point
2. Latent heat of fusion (the amount of energy in the form of heat required to start a change (physical
state) in solid substance and convert it into a liquid)

To a reasonable approximation
Quantity of heat (Um) = KTm2
Where,
K: Constant (3.33x10-6) when Kelvin scale is used
Um = Heat required (Joules/ mm3)
Tm = Melting temperature
 Workshop Practices
Heat transit
f1: Heat transfer factor (ratio of the actual heat received by the workpiece and the
total heat generated at the source)
f2: Melting factor: Fraction of heat received by the workpiece available for melting
(This is due to the conduction of heat away from weld zone)
Total heat (amount = H)
f1 H
Heat received by workpiece (amount = f1H)
f1f2H
Heat for melting (amount = f1f2H = Hw)
Hw = Net heat available for welding (Joule)
For Aluminium f2 is very small and welding becomes difficult…why?
 Workshop Practices
Energy Balance in Welding
Heat input for welding (Hw) = Energy needed for welding (Um*V)
Hw = Um*V
Um: Unit energy required to melt unit volume of metal (J/mm3)
V: Volume of the metal to be melted (mm3)
Rate balance
HRw = Um*Rwv = Um*Awv = f1f2HR
HR: Heat generated at the source per unit time
HRw: Rate of heat energy delivered to the weld (J/s)
Rwv : Volume rate of the metal welded (mm3/s) = Aw*v
Where, Aw: Area of the weld
v: Travel speed of arc or flame along the weld line
 Workshop Practices
Cross-section of fusion weld

(Plastic deformation below recrystallization temperature)

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Arc welding
It uses an electric arc to create heat to melt and join metals. 

• Electric arc: Discharge of electric current across a gap in a circuit

• Electric arc is sustained by plasma (ionized gas)
• Touch it and separate it and maintain the distance
• Temperature ~ 5500 ºC
• Filler metal is added to increase the strength and volume of the weld metal
 Workshop Practices
Electrode nature
Consumable: Filler metal acts as electrode
Non-consumable: W (tungsten rod):
Separate filler metal is needed

Wire electrode (Consumable) Non-consumable electrode (separate Filler metal)

 Workshop Practices
Filler Material Selection
• Base material
• Welding position
• Shielding gas
• Design requirement
• Environment
• Operating conditions (equipment and power)
• Heat treatment compatibility
Filler Materials
Tin, lead, silver, bronze, sil-phos [silver (Ag), copper (Cu), and phosphorous (P)],
copper, aluminum, nickel, and gold.
 Workshop Practices
Electrode Selection

*DCEN: Direct Current Electrode Negative; DCEP: Direct Current Electrode Positive
 Workshop Practices
Electrode Selection – Steel Arc Welding

• E – indicates electrode for arc welding.

• The first two (or three) digits – indicate tensile strength
• The third (or fourth) digit – indicates the position of the weld.
• 0 : classification is not used
• 1 : all positions
• 2 : flat and horizontal positions only
• 3 : flat position only
• The fourth (or fifth) digit – type of electrode coating and the type of power supply
used; alternating or direct current, straight or reverse polarity.
• The types of coating, welding current, and polarity position designated by the
fourth (or fifth).
 Workshop Practices
Electrode Selection – Steel Arc Welding
• The number E6010 – indicates an arc welding electrode with minimum stress
relieved tensile strength of 60,000 psi; is used in all positions, and reverse polarity
direct current (electrode is positive and the plates are negative) is required.

*When the fourth (or last) digit is 0, the type of coating and current to *Straight Polarity direct current: plates are positive and
be used is determined by the third digit the electrode is negative
 Workshop Practices
Arc Shielding
Need: To avoid chemical interaction between molten
metal with O2, H2 and N2.

Shields:
1. Gas blanket or flux or both
2. Gas: Argon, Helium or Mixture of Ar + O2 or CO2 to get oxidizing environment

• Flux: Flux forms slag which is to be removed

(a) Provides protective atmosphere for welding
(b) Stabilizing arc
(c) reducing spattering
 Workshop Practices
Arc Shielding
 Workshop Practices
Power source and analysis
• Both AC and DC arc are used
f1: Heat transfer factor (ratio of the actual heat received by the workpiece and the
total heat generated at the source)
f2: Melting factor: Fraction of heat received by the workpiece available for melting
(This is due to the conduction of heat away from weld zone)

HRw: Rate of heat energy delivered to the weld (J/s)

HRw = Um*Awv = f1f2HR = f1f2E*I
E: Voltage (V)
I: Current (Amp)
 Workshop Practices
Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW):
Oxygen and acetylene are the two gases used to produce the flame. Oxygen is mainly
used for supporting combustion intensity. A typical oxy-acetylene gas welding setup is
used.
Acetylene is the fuel and Combustion of C2H2 by O2 generates heat and temperature
can reach 3480 ᵒC.

C2H2 + O2 = 2CO +H2 + Heat

 Workshop Practices
Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW):

OAW is a manual process in which the welder must personally control the torch
movement and filler rod application

• The term oxyfuel gas welding outfit refers to all the equipment needed to weld.

• Cylinders contain oxygen and acetylene gas at extremely high pressure.

• C2H2 + O2 mixture is flammable and hazardous.

• Pure C2H2 colorless and odorless gas mixed with commercial acetone (why?).
(Example hint: Acetone + Acetylene: Acetylene is unstable beyond 1 atm pressure,
and Acetone can dissolve 25 times acetylene…and the cylinder is filled with porous
materials such as asbestos…)
 Workshop Practices
Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW): Flame setting
There are three distinct types of oxy-acetylene flames, usually termed:
 Neutral
 Carburizing (or “excess acetylene”)
 Oxidizing (or “excess oxygen” )
 • The type of flame produced depends upon the ratio of oxygen to acetylene in the
gas mixture which leaves the torch tip.
 Workshop Practices
Oxy-Acetylene Welding (OAW)
Advantage:
 Inexpensive
 Portable
 Economical and versatile process
 Well suited for low quality production and repair job

Disadvantage:
 Longer time for welding
 Larger HAZ
 Problem with stainless steel welding
 Workshop Practices
Resistance Welding (electric resistance welding):
Resistance welding is the joining of metals by applying pressure and passing current
for a length of time through the metal area which is to be joined. The key advantage
of resistance welding is that no other materials are needed to create the bond, which
makes this process extremely cost effective. Example: Spot welding
H = I2Rt
H: Heat generated
Heat + Pressure : Joining by fusion
I: Current due to electrical resistance to the
R: Resistance current flow at the junction to be
T: Time welded

Advantage:
1. No filler metal
2. High production rate
3. Good repeatability and reliability
Disadvantage:
1. High cost
 Workshop Practices
Thermit Welding (Fusion welding)
Thermite mixture: Al and Iron oxide
8Al + 3F3O4 = 9Fe +4Al2O3 + Heat
 Workshop Practices
Solid state welding
• Application of Heat or Pressure or only Pressure leads to welding
• Localized melting is possible or even melting may not occur
• Filler metal is not used
• Metallurgical bond is created with or without melting

Advantages:
• Welding with little melting or no melting
• Metallurgical purity is maintained
• No HAZ
• Dissimilar metals can be bonded
 
Example: Forge welding, Roll welding, Cold welding, Diffusion welding, Explosion welding
(Cladding)
 Workshop Practices
Friction welding

Applications:
• Welding various shafts and tubes
• Automobile, Aircraft

Upset –lateral force

 Workshop Practices
Weld quality

Warping
Remedy:
1. Welding fixture
2. Heat sinks (heat removal from
all sides)
3. Preheating
 Workshop Practices
Weld quality

Welding cracks

Incomplete fusion
 Workshop Practices
Weldability
Ability of a metal to get welded easily with absence of weld defects, acceptable
strength, ductility and toughness in the welded joint.

Factors that affect weldability:

1. Welding process
2. Base metal properties
3. Filler metal
4. Surface conditions
 Workshop Practices
Brazing, Soldering and Adhesive joining

Brazing is a metal-joining

process in which two or more
metal items are joined
together by melting and
flowing a filler metal into the
joint, with the filler metal
having a lower melting point
than the adjoining metal.
Soldering is a joining process
used to join different types of
metals together by melting
solder. 
Adhesive Bonding is the
process of joining two surfaces
together, usually with the
creation of a smooth bond.
This may involve the use of
glue, epoxy.
 Workshop Practices
Brazing and Soldering
• Filler metal used for joining
• Fall in between complete fusion and solid state welding
• Filler metal melts but base metal does not.
• Metals with poor weldability can be joined
• Dissimilar metals can be joined
• where high strength is not a requirement
Brazing
• Filler metal melts and gets distributed due to capillary force (clearance required -
surface tension causes molten braze filler metal (silver) to be drawn into the area that
covers the parallel surfaces that are to be brazed) between the facing surfaces.
• Filler metal melts but base metal does not.
• Melting temperature of filler metal> 450 ᵒC but must be below the melting point of base
metal
 Workshop Practices
Brazing
Advantages
• Any metals can be joined even dissimilar metals.
• Quick and consistent.
• Joining thin walled part
• Less heat and power requirement (less HAZ problem)
• Difficult to access parts can be joined (because of Capillary force)

Limitations
• Joint strength is less than welded joint
• Although strength of a good brazed joint is greater than that of a filler metal, it is less than
base metal
• High service temperature may weaken a brazed joint
• Color of brazed metal may not match with base metal aesthetic disadvantage
 Workshop Practices
Brazing and Soldering
1. Filler metal used for joining two metal parts.
2. Brazing and soldering face between complete fusion welding and solid state
welding.
3. Filler metal melts but base metal does not melt
4. Metals with poor weldability can be joined.
5. Dissimilar strength is not a requirement.
 Workshop Practices
Soldering
1. Similar to Brazing
2. Filler metal used and melting point of filler metal is less than 450 ᵒC
3. Capillary action distributes the molten filler metals into the surfaces of the metal
parts being joined.
4. No melting of the base metal
5. Filler melts, wets and combine with base metal to give strength because of
metallurgical bond.
6. Cleaning of the surfaces are necessary to increase the wettability.
7. Filler metal is called Solder (tin, lead, silver, copper, aluminum, nickel).
8. Electronic industry finds great use of soldering.
 Workshop Practices
Soldering

Advantages
1. Low energy input relative to brazing and fusion welding.
2. Good electrical and thermal conductivity in the joint.
3. Capability of making air tight and liquid tight seams for container

Disadvantages
1. Low joint strength unless reinforce by mechanical means
2. Possible weakening or melting of the joint in elevated temperature service.
 Workshop Practices
Soldering
• Most Solders are alloys of tin and lead, since both metals have low melting points.
• Low temperature eutectic (melting composition of two or more components, each
of which melts and freezes at same time) and better control over soldering process
by changing the composition.
• This is chemically active at soldering temperature and promotes the wetting action
required for successful joining.
• In joining copper alloys, intermetallic compounds of Tin and Copper form and
strength the solder joint.
 Workshop Practices
Soldering joint
 Workshop Practices
Adhesive Bonding
Adhesive bonding is a joining process in which a filler material is used to hold two (or
more) closely spaced parts together by surface attachment .
Filler material: Adhesive ( Generally nonmetallic substance-Polymer)
Parts to be joined: Adherands
 Workshop Practices
Adhesive bonding
• Here also forces of attachment between a filler materials and two closely spaced
surfaces to bond the parts.

• Differences between adhesive bonding and Brazing and Soldering are:

a. In adhesive bonding, the filler material is not metal.

b. Adhesive bonding takes place at room temperature or moderately high
temperature.
 Workshop Practices
Why cleaning of surfaces are required?

• Cleanliness of the joint surfaces prior to brazing is also important.

• Surfaces must be free of oxides, oils and other contaminants in order to promote
wetting and capillary attraction during the process.

• Wire brushing

• Sand blasting

• Chemical treatment
 Workshop Practices
Adhesive Bonding
Strength of the attachments is due to either-
1. Chemical bonding – adhesives unit with the adherands and primary chemical
bonding, upon hardening.
Or
2. Physical Interaction: Secondary bonding results upon hardening.
Or
3. Mechanical interlocking in which the surface roughness of the adherand causes the
hardened adhesive to become entangled or trapped in its microscopic surface
asperities.
 Workshop Practices
Adhesive Bonding

Conditions to get better result from adhesive bonding-

1. Clean surface – free from oil, dirt- oxide film.
2. Better wetting of the adherends by the liquid adhesive.
3. Little rough surface of the adherends is better – promotes mechanical interlocking.
 Workshop Practices
Adhesive Bonding
Advantages
1. This process is capable to a wide variety of materials.
2. Parts of different sizes and cross sections ca be joined-fragile parts can be joined by
adhesive bonding.
3. Bonding occurs over the entire surface area of the joint
4. Low temperature curing avoids damage to parts being joined.
5. Sealing as well as bonding can be achieved
6. Simplified joint design
 Workshop Practices
Adhesive Bonding
Disadvantages
1. Joining is not as strong as other joining methods
2. Adhesive must be compatible with adherends
3. Service temperature is limited
4. Cleanliness and surface preparation is very crucial
5. Curing time imposes production rate
6. Inspection of bonding joint is difficult
 Workshop Practices
Advantages of welding
• Welded joint has high strength, sometimes more than the parent metal.
• Different material can be welded.
• Welding can be performed anyplace, no need enough clearance.
• They give smooth appearance and simplicity in design.
• They can be done in any shape and any direction.
• It can be automated.
• Provide a complete rigid joint.
• Addition and modification of existing structures are easy.
Disadvantages of welding
• Members may become distorted due to uneven heating and cooling during welding.
• They are permanent joint, to dismantle we have to break the weld.
• High initial investment
 Workshop Practices
Symbols in welding
Single-Sided Butt Welds Double-Sided Butt Joints

Other Base Symbols Supplementary Symbols

 Workshop Practices
Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) or Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG):
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding, also known as Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) is
an arc welding process that produces the weld with a non-consumable tungsten
electrode. It is suitable for high quality welding but deposition rate is slow (difficulty in
welding of thick materials).
 Workshop Practices
Gas Metal ARC Welding (GMAW) or Metal Inert Gas Welding (MIG):
Metal Inert Gas (MIG) welding is an arc welding process that uses a continuous solid
wire electrode heated and fed into the weld pool from a welding gun. Thick materials
can be easily joined with high quality.
 Workshop Practices
Manual Metal arc welding (Electric Arc):
Manual metal arc welding (MMA or MMAW), also known as shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW), flux shielded arc welding or stick welding, is a process where the arc
is struck between an electrode flux coated metal rod and the work piece. Both the rod
and the surface of the work piece melt to create a weld.

Flux (ammonium chloride,

resin acids, zinc chloride)
is a flowing agent used to
promote the fusion of
metals and to remove
oxides present in the weld.
~ resistance to oxidation
and higher mechanical
properties.
 Workshop Practices
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
The heat affected zone (HAZ) is the area of metal that
has not been melted during welding and has undergone
microstructural changes as a result of being exposed to
relatively high temperatures during welding. The HAZ is
located between the weld and the unaffected base metal
surface.
 Workshop Practices
Types of welding: Comparison

• Hollow wire electrode required for FCW.

• Similar to MIG

These two (FCW and SW) is know as:

• Manual metal arc welding (MMAW)
Or
• Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW)
 Manufacturing Processes
References…
1. A. Ghosh, and A. K. Mallik, Manufacturing Science, Affiliated East-West
Press.
2. P.N. Rao, Manufacturing Technology-Metal Cutting and Machining, Tata
McGraw Hill, Publishing Company.
3. S. Kalpakijain, Manufacturing Engineering and Technology, Pearson
Education India Edition, 2013.