ESTABLISHING NEW POPULATIONS

 One approach to protect endangered species involves

establishing new wild populations of those species

 New populations of rare and endangered species can be

established in the wild using captive-bred,captive-
raised(caught as juveniles in the wild),or wild-caught
animals

 Three approaches to Establishing New Populations

1.REINTRODUCTION PROGRAM: Involves the releasing
captive-bred or wild-collected individuals into an
ecologically suitable site within their historical/indigenous
range where species no longer exist

 Reintroduction aims to re-establish a viable population of

the focal species within its indigenous range.

 While reintroduction programs currently exist for many

species, conditions are not suitable for reintroduction for the
majority of species as native habitat is not available or
threats to wild populations still exist.
2. RESTOCKING PROGRAM: Involves releasing
individuals into an existing population to increase its size
and gene pool.
 The released individuals may be raised in captivity or may
be wild individuals collected else where

3.INTRODUCTION PROGRAM: Involves moving captive-

bred or wild-collected animals or plants to areas suitable for
the species outside their historical range.
 May be appropriate when the environment within the
known range of a species has deteriorated to the point where
the species can no longer survive there, or where
reintroduction is impossible because the factor causing the
original decline is still present
 Animals raised in captivity may lack the skills needed to
survive in the wild

 Some species require social and behavioral training before

the release and some degree of maintenance after release

 Establishment of new population of a rare species is often

not successful , but the potential for success is enhanced
when the release occurs in excellent habitat within the
historical range of the species and when large numbers of
the species and when large numbers of wild –caught
animals are used
 EX SITU CONSERVATION STRATEGIES
 A goal of conservation is the maintenance of existing genetic
diversity and viable populations of all taxa in the wild in order to
maintain biological interactions, ecological processes and
function.

 The threats to biodiversity in situ continue to expand, and taxa

have to survive in increasingly human-modified environments.

 The reality of the current situation is that it will not be possible

to ensure the survival of an increasing number of threatened taxa
without effectively using a diverse range of complementary
conservation approaches and techniques including, for some
taxa, increasing the role and practical use of ex situ techniques.
 EX SITU CONSERVATION STRATEGIES
 Ex situ conservation is defined as "the conservation of components of
biological diversity outside their natural habitats".

 The practice of ex situ conservation involves the removal of

individuals or groups from their natural habitat into captivity, either to
breed or to maintain a genetic stock.

 Ex situ collections include whole plant or animal collections,

zoological parks and botanic gardens, wildlife research facilities, and
germplasm (living genetic resources that is maintained for the purpose
of animal and plant breeding, preservation, and other research uses)
collections of wild and domesticated taxa (zygotes, gametes and
somatic tissue).

 Moreover, ex situ conservation should be considered as a tool to

ensure the survival of the wild population.
 EX SITU CONSERVATION STRATEGIES
 A taxon-specific conservation plan may involve a range of ex
situ objectives, including short-, medium- and long-term
maintenance of ex situ stocks.

 This can utilise a variety of techniques including reproduction

propagation, germplasm banking, applied research,
reinforcement of existing populations and re-introduction into
the wild or controlled environments

 Those responsible for managing ex situ populations and facilities

should seek both to increase public awareness, concern and
support for biodiversity, and to support the implementation of
conservation management, through education, fundraising and
professional capacity building programmes, and by supporting
direct action in situ.
 The basis for responsible ex situ population management in support of
conservation is founded on benefits for both threatened taxa and
associated habitats.
 The primary objective of maintaining ex situ populations is to help
support the conservation of a threatened taxon , its genetic diversity,
and its habitat.
 Ex situ programmes should give added value to other complementary
programmes for conservation.
 Although there will be taxa-specific exceptions due to unique life
histories, the decision to initiate ex situ programmes should be based
on one or more of the appropriate IUCN Red List Criteria, including:
1. When the taxa/population is prone to effects of human activities or
stochastic events
2. When the taxa/population is likely to become Critically
Endangered, Extinct in the Wild, or Extinct in a very short time;
should be subject to ex situ management to ensure recovery of
wild populations.
 The basis for responsible ex situ population management in support of
conservation is founded on benefits for both threatened taxa and
associated habitats.
 The primary objective of maintaining ex situ populations is to help
support the conservation of a threatened taxon , its genetic diversity,
and its habitat.
 Ex situ programmes should give added value to other complementary
programmes for conservation.
 Although there will be taxa-specific exceptions due to unique life
histories, the decision to initiate ex situ programmes should be based
on one or more of the appropriate IUCN Red List Criteria, including:
1. When the taxa/population is prone to effects of human activities or
stochastic events or
2. When the taxa/population is likely to become Critically
Endangered, Extinct in the Wild, or Extinct in a very short time;
should be subject to ex situ management to ensure recovery of
wild populations.
PROTECTED AREAS
 ESTABLISHING PROTECTED AREAS

 Conservation activity is still largely concerned with the

concept of protected areas.

 Areas of high conservation value are set aside from the

ravages of habitat destruction in order to preserve remnants
of natural systems.

 If this approach is to be efficient we must examine the

current protected area system to see to what extent it
conserves biodiversity and explore how we might identify
where new areas should be designated.
 ESTABLISHING PROTECTED AREAS

 The dominant conservation action to this day is to identify

valuable natural and semi-natural areas and protect them,
with the assumption that in so doing one also protects the
species and communities they contain.

 This seems logical as one could argue that the only effective
way of conserving biodiversity in the long term is to protect
intact ecosystems.
WHAT IS A PROTECTED AREA?
• The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
defines a protected area as a:

“...clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated

and managed, through legal or other effective means, to
achieve the long-term conservation of nature with
associated ecosystem services and cultural values’’
 Clearly defined geographical space
• “Space” includes land, inland water, marine and coastal areas or a
combination of two or more of these.
• “Clearly defined” implies a spatially defined area with agreed and
demarcated borders. These borders can be defined by physical
features that move over time (e.g. river banks) or by varying
negotiated decisions about management actions (e.g. agreed and
physically demarcated no-take zones).

 Recognised
• Protection can include a range of governance types declared by
people as well as those identified by the government.
• All such sites, however, should be recognised through legal or
other effective means (e.g. through listing on the World Database
on Protected Areas) so providing added protection against threats.
 Dedicated
• Implies a specific binding commitment to conservation in the
long term, through, e.g.:
o International conventions and agreements
o Supranational agreements
o National, provincial and local law
o Customary law
o Covenants of NGOs
o Private trusts and company policies
o Certification schemes

 Managed
• Assumes some active steps to conserve the natural (and possibly
other) values for which the protected area was established;
• note that “managed” can include a range of strategies, from leaving
the area completely inviolate, to taking action on various issues,
including resource use, habitat maintenance and restoration, etc.
 Legal or other effective means
• Means that protected areas must either be gazetted (that is,
recognised under statutory civil law), recognised through an
international convention or agreement, or else managed through
other effective means, such as decisions by a landowner,
traditional rules for a community conserved area, or policies of
non-governmental organisations.

 To achieve
• Implies some level of effectiveness – an element strongly
requested by many protected area managers and others.
• Although management category will still be determined by main
objective, management effectiveness will progressively be
recorded on the World Database on Protected Areas and, over
time, will become a contributory criterion of identification and
recognition.
 Long-term
• Protected areas should be managed in perpetuity and not as a
short-term or temporary management strategy.

 Conservation
• In the context of this definition, conservation refers to the in-
situ maintenance of ecosystems and natural and semi-natural
habitats and of viable populations of species in their natural
surroundings
• As noted in the World Conservation Strategy of 1980, this can
be achieved by the preservation, sustainable use, restoration
and enhancement of natural environments.

 Nature
• In this context nature always refers to biodiversity, at genetic,
species and ecosystem level, and often also refers to
geodiversity, landform and broader natural values at
landscape/ seascape level.
 Associated ecosystem services
• Means here ecosystem services that are related to, but do
not interfere with, the aim of nature conservation.
• These can include provisioning services, such as food and
water; regulating services, such as regulation of floods,
drought, land degradation, and disease; supporting services,
such as soil formation and nutrient cycling; and cultural
services, such as recreational, spiritual, religious and other
non-material benefits.

 Cultural values
• Includes those that do not interfere with the conservation
outcome (all cultural values in a protected area should meet
this criterion), including in particular: those that contribute
to conservation outcomes (e.g. traditional management
practices on which key species have become reliant); and
those that are themselves under threat.
 IUCN PROTECTED AREAS CATEGORIES
 Protected areas vary greatly in their status and there are many
different reasons for designation of areas and many different levels of
protection, largely dependent on the country to which they belong.

 The original intent of the IUCN Protected Area Management

Categories system was to create a common understanding of protected
areas, both within and between countries.
 Provide a common language by which managers, planners, researchers,
politicians and citizens groups in all countries can exchange information and
views” (IUCN 1994).
 To “reduce the confusion around the use of many different terms to describe
protected areas;
 Provide international standards for global and regional accounting and
comparisons between countries, using a common framework for the collection,
handling and dissemination of protected areas data; and
 To improve communication and understanding between all those engaged in
conservation”
 The IUCN has produced a list of categories of protected
areas with a justification and rationale for each

 The categories are recognised by international bodies such

as the United Nations and by many national governments as
the global standard for defining and recording protected
areas and as such are increasingly being incorporated into
government legislation.

 For example, the CBD Programme of Work on Protected

Areas “recognizes the value of a single international
classification system for protected areas and the benefit of
providing information that is comparable across countries
and regions and therefore welcomes the ongoing efforts of
the IUCN World Commission on Protected Areas to refine
the IUCN system of categories … ”
 CATEGORY IA: STRICT NATURE RESERVES
 Category Ia are strictly protected areas set aside to protect
biodiversity and also possibly geological/geomorphological
features, where human visitation, use and impacts are
strictly controlled and limited to ensure protection of the
conservation values.
 Such protected areas can serve as indispensable reference
areas for scientific research and monitoring.

 Primary objective
●● To conserve regionally, nationally or globally outstanding
ecosystems, species (occurrences or aggregations) and/ or
geodiversity features: these attributes will have been formed
mostly or entirely by non-human forces and will be
degraded or destroyed when subjected to all but very light
human impact.
 CATEGORY IB: WILDERNESS AREA
 Category Ib protected areas are usually large unmodified or
slightly modified areas, retaining their natural character and
influence, without permanent or significant human
habitation, which are protected and managed so as to
preserve their natural condition.

 Primary objective
●● To protect the long-term ecological integrity of natural
areas that are undisturbed by significant human activity,
free of modern infrastructure and where natural forces and
processes predominate, so that current and future
generations have the opportunity to experience such areas.
 CATEGORY IB: WILDERNESS AREA
 Distinguishing features
The area should generally:
●● Be free of modern infrastructure, development and industrial
extractive activity, including but not limited to roads, pipelines,
power lines, cellphone towers, oil and gas platforms, offshore
liquefied natural gas terminals, other permanent structures,
mining, hydropower development, oil and gas extraction,
agriculture including intensive livestock grazing, commercial
fishing, low-flying aircraft etc., preferably with highly restricted
or no motorized access.
 Category Ib protected areas are usually large unmodified or
slightly modified areas, retaining their natural character and
influence, without permanent or significant human habitation;
which are protected and managed so as to preserve their natural
condition.
 CATEGORY II: NATIONAL PARK

 Category II protected areas are large natural or near natural areas set
aside to protect large-scale ecological processes, along with the
complement of species and ecosystems characteristic of the area,
which also provide a foundation for environmentally and culturally
compatible spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor
opportunities.

 Primary objective
●● To protect natural biodiversity along with its underlying ecological
structure and supporting environmental processes, and to promote
education and recreation.
CATEGORY III: NATURAL MONUMENT OR FEATURE
Category III protected areas are set aside to protect a specific
natural monument, which can be a landform, sea mount, submarine
cavern, geological feature such as a cave or even a living feature such
as an ancient grove. They are generally quite small protected areas
and often have high visitor value.
Primary objective
●● To protect specific outstanding natural features and their associated
biodiversity and habitats.

Other objectives
●● To provide biodiversity protection in landscapes or seascapes that
have otherwise undergone major changes;
●● To protect specific natural sites with spiritual and/or cultural values
where these also have biodiversity values;
●● To conserve traditional spiritual and cultural values of the site.
CATEGORY III: NATURAL MONUMENT OR FEATURE
Distinguishing features
Category III protected areas are usually relatively small sites that focus
on one or more prominent natural features and the associated ecology,
rather than on a broader ecosystem. They are managed in much the same
way as category II.

Category III protected areas could include:

●● Natural geological and geomorphological features: such as waterfalls, cliffs,
craters, caves, fossil beds, sand dunes, rock forms, valleys and marine features such as
sea mounts or coral formations;
●● Culturally-influenced natural features: such as cave dwellings and ancient
tracks;
●● Natural-cultural sites: such as the many forms of sacred natural sites (sacred
groves, springs, waterfalls, mountains etc.) of importance to one or more faith groups;
●● Cultural sites with associated ecology: where protection of a cultural site also
protects significant and important biodiversity, such as archaeological/historical sites
that are inextricably linked to a natural area.
CATEGORY IV: HABITAT/SPECIES MANAGEMENT AREA
Category IV protected areas aim to protect particular species or
habitats and management reflects this priority.

Primary objective
●● To maintain, conserve and restore species and habitats.

Other objectives:
●● To protect vegetation patterns or other biological features through
traditional management approaches;
●● To protect fragments of habitats as components of landscape or
seascape-scale conservation strategies;
●● To develop public education and appreciation of the species and/or
habitats concerned;
●● To provide a means by which the urban residents may obtain
regular contact with nature.
 Distinguishing features
Category IV protected areas usually help to protect, or restore:
1) flora species of international, national or local
importance;
2) fauna species of international, national or local
importance including resident or migratory fauna; and/or
3) habitats.
 Category V: Protected landscape/ seascape
A protected area where the interaction of people and nature
over time has produced an area of distinct character with
significant ecological, biological, cultural and scenic value:
and where safeguarding the integrity of this interaction is vital
to protecting and sustaining the area and its associated nature
conservation and other values.

Primary objective
●● To protect and sustain important
landscapes/seascapes and the associated nature conservation
and other values created by interactions with humans through
traditional management practices.
Distinguishing features
Category V protected areas result from biotic, abiotic and
human interaction and should have the following essential
characteristics:

●● Landscape and/or coastal and island seascape of high and/

or distinct scenic quality and with significant associated
habitats, flora and fauna and associated cultural features;

●● A balanced interaction between people and nature that has

endured over time and still has integrity, or where there is
reasonable hope of restoring that integrity;

●● Unique or traditional land-use patterns, e.g., as evidenced

in sustainable agricultural and forestry systems and human
settlements that have evolved in balance with their landscape.
 CATEGORY VI: PROTECTED AREA WITH SUSTAINABLE USE
OF NATURAL RESOURCES
Category VI protected areas conserve ecosystems and habitats, together
with associated cultural values and traditional natural resource management
systems. They are generally large, with most of the area in a natural
condition, where a proportion is under sustainable natural resource
management and where low-level non-industrial use of natural resources
compatible with nature conservation is seen as one of the main aims of the
area.

Primary objective
●● To protect natural ecosystems and use natural resources sustainably, when conservation
and sustainable use can be mutually beneficial.

Distinguishing features
●● Category VI protected areas, uniquely amongst the IUCN categories system, have the
sustainable use of natural resources as a means to achieve nature conservation, together and
in synergy with other actions more common to the other categories, such as protection.
 Despite the categories, all protected areas should also aim,
as appropriate, to:

 • Conserve significant landscape features, geomorphology

and geology;
 • Provide regulatory ecosystem services, including buffering
against the impacts of climate change;

 • Conserve natural and scenic areas of national and

international significance for cultural, spiritual and
scientific purposes;
 • Deliver sustainable benefits to resident and local
communities consistent with the other objectives of
management;
INTERNATIONAL CONSERVATION INITIATIVES
UNESCO MAN AND THE BIOSPHERE PROGRAMME
Objectives: The Man and the Biosphere Programme targets
the ecological, social and economic dimensions of biodiversity
loss, and the reduction of this loss using its World Network of
Biosphere Reserves for knowledge sharing, research and
monitoring, education and training, and participatory decision
making.

Biosphere reserve means an area of terrestrial, coastal or

marine ecosystems, or a combination thereof, which is
internationally recognized within the framework of the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
(UNESCO) Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme for
designation as part of the Worldwide Network of Biosphere
Reserves (UNESCO, 1995, Art. 1).
 Today there are over 500 biosphere reserves in more than
100 countries.
 They are considered by IUCN and the world protected areas
community as one of the key tools for linking protected
areas to surrounding ecosystems and designing integrated
landscape management to support protected areas (IUCN-
WPC 2003 V.9)
 Most countries now have a designated biosphere reserve or
are contemplating creating at least one biosphere reserve to
become part of the World Network.
 Each biosphere reserve has its own system of governance
to ensure it meets its functions and objectives, and
establishment is voluntary.
 Incentives for the designation of a biosphere reserve as part
of the World Network include international recognition,
technical assistance and donor support.
 What is a Biosphere Reserve?
Biosphere Reserves are areas of terrestrial ,marine and coastal
ecosystems promoting solutions to reconcile the conservation of
biodiversity with its sustainable use.

They are internationally recognized, nominated by national

governments and remain under sovereign jurisdiction of the states
where they are located.

Biosphere reserves serve in some ways as 'living laboratories' for

testing out and demonstrating integrated management of land,
water and biodiversity.
 What is a Biosphere Reserve?
Each biosphere reserve is intended to fulfil three basic functions,
which are complementary and mutually reinforcing:

 A conservation function - to contribute to the conservation

of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic variation;

 A development function - to foster economic and human

development which is socio-culturally and ecologically
sustainable;

 A logistic function - to provide support for research,

monitoring, education and information exchange related to
local, national and global issues of conservation and
development
 Biosphere Reserves are not covered by an international
convention but must simply meet a set of criteria allowing
them to fulfil properly their three functions.

 Collectively, biosphere reserves form a World Network.

Within this network, exchanges of information, experience
and personnel are promoted.

 Biosphere reserves are organized into three interrelated

zones, known as the core area, the buffer zone and the
transition area and only the core area requires legal
protection.
• Convention Concerning the Protection of the
World Cultural and Natural Heritage
 Basic Data: Concluded 1972, entered into force 1975, 186
States Parties

 Website: http://whc.unesco.org

 Objectives: To establish an effective system of collective

protection of cultural and natural heritage of outstanding
universal value worldwide, organized on a permanent basis
and in accordance with modern scientific methods.
 The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (World Heritage Convention,
or WHC) is concerned with the national and international
protection of cultural and natural heritage which is of
outstanding universal value, as defined by the Convention.

 Having been concluded on the occasion of the 1972 United

Nations Conference on the Human Environment
(Stockholm Conference), the Convention is one of the first
of the modern international law instruments where protected
areas are a primary means for States Parties to meet their
obligations to protect natural heritage sites (or mixed natural
and cultural sites) in their territories when of outstanding
universal values
 Cultural heritage, in relation to properties eligible as world
heritage sites, means monuments, groups of buildings and sites
that are works of man or the combined works of nature and
man, including archaeological sites, which are of outstanding
universal value (WHC, Art. 1)

 Natural heritage, in relation to properties eligible as world

heritage sites, means natural features, geological and
physiographical formations, and natural sites or precisely
delineated natural areas of outstanding universal value

 Outstanding universal value means “cultural and/or natural

significance which is so exceptional as to transcend national
boundaries and to be of common importance for present and
future generations of all humanity” (UNESCO, 2008b, para.
49).
..As such, the permanent protection of the heritage is of the
highest importance to the international community as a whole.
 For the purposes of the WH Convention, the following are
considered as "cultural heritage";
 Monuments: architectural works, works of monumental
sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an
archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings and
combinations of features, which are of Outstanding Universal
Value from the point of view of history, art or science;
 Groups of buildings: groups of separate or connected buildings
which, because of their architecture, their homogeneity or their
place in the landscape, are of Outstanding Universal Value from
the point of view of history, art or science;
 Sites: works of man or the combined works of nature and of
man, and areas including archaeological sites which are of
Outstanding Universal Value from the historical, aesthetic,
ethnological or anthropological points of view.
 For the purposes of the WH Convention, the following are
considered as "natural heritage":
 Natural features consisting of physical and biological
formations or groups of such formations, which are of
Outstanding Universal Value from the aesthetic or scientific
point of view;

 Geological and physiographical formations and precisely

delineated areas which constitute the habitat of threatened
species of animals and plants of Outstanding Universal
Value from the point of view of science or conservation;

 Natural sites or precisely delineated natural areas of

Outstanding Universal Value from the point of view of
science, conservation or natural beauty
 Properties is considered as "mixed cultural and natural
heritage" if they satisfy a part or the whole of the definitions
of both cultural and natural heritage

 Committee defines the criteria (Operational Guidelines) for

the inscription of properties on the World Heritage List
(UNESCO, 2008b, p. 14, para. 49).

 The World Heritage List has 890 properties: 689 cultural,

176 natural and 25 mixed properties in 148 states
 The Convention provides that such sites may be put on the
World Heritage List of natural and cultural heritage of
outstanding universal value, when so nominated by the state
in which the site is located and accepted by the World
Heritage Committee based on criteria that the Committee
defines.

 The World Heritage Committee, the main body in charge of

establishing the List and overall Convention
implementation,

 ….. consists of representatives from 21 State Parties to the

Convention, elected by the General Assembly of States
Parties to the World Heritage Convention.
 Selection criteria
(i) to represent a masterpiece of human creative genius;

(ii) to exhibit an important interchange of human values, over

a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on
developments in architecture or technology, monumental
arts, town-planning or landscape design;

(iii)to bear a unique or at least exceptional testimony to a

cultural tradition or to a civilization which is living or which
has disappeared;
(iv) to be an outstanding example of a type of building,
architectural or technological ensemble or landscape which
illustrates (a) significant stage(s) in human history;

(v) to be an outstanding example of a traditional human

settlement, land-use, or sea-use which is representative of a
culture (or cultures), or human interaction with the
environment especially when it has become vulnerable
under the impact of irreversible change;

(vi) to be directly or tangibly associated with events or living

traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic and
literary works of outstanding universal significance. (The
Committee considers that this criterion should preferably be
used in conjunction with other criteria);
(vii) to contain superlative natural phenomena or areas of
exceptional natural beauty and aesthetic importance;
(viii) to be outstanding examples representing major stages of
earth's history, including the record of life, significant on-going
geological processes in the development of landforms, or
significant geomorphic or physiographic features;

(ix) to be outstanding examples representing significant on-going

ecological and biological processes in the evolution and
development of terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine
ecosystems and communities of plants and animals;
(x) to contain the most important and significant natural habitats
for in-situ conservation of biological diversity, including those
containing threatened species of outstanding universal value
from the point of view of science or conservation.
Relevance for protected areas

 For a natural land or marine property to be nominated for

the World Heritage List, the site must have certain legal
protections already in place.

 For acceptance on the List, the site must continue to be in

compliance with these legal requirements.

 Sites can be removed from the List for failure to maintain

legal protections or comply with management requirements,
among other things.
 RAMSAR CONVENTION
 Basic data: Concluded 1971, entered into force 1975; 168
Contracting Parties
 Number of Ramsar Sites: 2,193
 Total surface of designated sites: 208,843,795 ha

 Website: http://www.ramsar.org

 Objectives: The Convention’s mission is the “conservation

and wise use of all wetlands through local, regional and
national actions, and international cooperation, as a
contribution towards achieving sustainable development
throughout the world.”

 Listing a wetland under the Ramsar Convention gives it the

status of a wetland of international importance
 The Convention on Wetlands is an intergovernmental treaty adopted on 2
February 1971 in the Iranian city of Ramsar, on the southern shore of the
Caspian Sea.
 Thus, though nowadays the name of the Convention is usually written
“Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971)”, it has come to be known
popularly as the “Ramsar Convention”.

 The Convention on Wetland is an intergovernmental treaty that provides the

framework for national action and international cooperation for the
conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.

 Its primary objective is the protection of wetlands for their fundamental

ecological functions as regulators of water regimes and as habitats supporting
flora and fauna, especially waterfowl (defined as birds ecologically dependent
on wetlands).


 Wetlands are among the most diverse and productive ecosystems.
They provide essential services and supply all our fresh water.
However they continue to be degraded and converted to other uses. 

 The Convention uses a broad definition of wetlands. It includes all

lakes and rivers, underground aquifers, swamps and marshes, wet
grasslands, peatlands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats,
mangroves and other coastal areas, coral reefs, and all human-made
sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs and salt pans.

 Under the “three pillars” of the Convention, the Contracting Parties

commit to:
 work towards the wise use of all their wetlands;
 designate suitable wetlands for the list of Wetlands of International
Importance (the “Ramsar List”) and ensure their effective
management;cooperate internationally on transboundary wetlands,
shared wetland systems and shared species.
 Under the Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar, Iran, 1971)
‘wetlands’ are defined by Articles 1.1 and 2.1 as shown
below:
 Article 1.1:
‘For the purpose of this Convention wetlands are areas of
marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial,
permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing,
fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the
depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres.’

 Article 2.1 provides that wetlands:

‘may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the
wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than
six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands’.
Relevance for protected areas

 Parties to the Convention have an obligation to designate, at

the time of ratification or accession, at least one wetland for
inclusion in the List of Wetlands of International
Importance (the Ramsar List), to promote conservation of
the site and to continue designating suitable wetlands within
its territory (Art. 2(1)).

 The Contracting Parties have developed specific ecological

criteria and guidelines for identifying sites as internationally
important to qualify for inclusion in the Ramsar List.
 There is no obligation in the Convention text for listed sites
to be legally protected areas under national legislation.
However, the Convention provides that each Contracting
Party “shall promote the conservation of wetlands and
waterfowl by establishing nature reserves on wetlands,
whether they are included in the List or not, and provide
adequately for their wardening” (Art. 4(1)).
 Under the Convention, Contracting Parties have an
obligation, triggered immediately upon listing a wetland
site, to formulate and implement national land use planning
to promote conservation of the site (Art. 3(1)).
 Parties also have an obligation to formulate and implement
national land use plans to promote wise use of all wetlands
in their territory, not just those on the Ramsar List (Art.
3(1)).
• Criteria for identifying Wetlands of International
Importance
• Under the Ramsar Criteria, wetlands should be selected for
the Ramsar List on account of their international
significance in terms of the biodiversity and uniqueness of
their ecology, botany, zoology, limnology or hydrology.

 Group A of the Criteria. Sites containing

representative, rare or unique wetland types

• Criterion 1: A wetland should be considered

internationally important if it contains a representative, rare,
or unique example of a natural or near-natural wetland type
found within the appropriate biogeographic region.
 Group B of the Criteria. Sites of international
importance for conserving biological diversity Criteria
based on species and ecological communities

Criterion 2: A wetland should be considered internationally important if

it supports vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered species or
threatened ecological communities.

Criterion 3: A wetland should be considered internationally important if

it supports populations of plant and/or animal species important for
maintaining the biological diversity of a particular biogeographic
region.

Criterion 4: A wetland should be considered internationally important if

it supports plant and/or animal species at a critical stage in their life
cycles, or provides refuge during adverse conditions.
Specific criteria based on waterbirds

Criterion 5: A wetland should be considered

internationally important if it regularly supports
20,000 or more waterbirds.

Criterion 6: A wetland should be considered

internationally important if it regularly supports 1%
of the individuals in a population of one species or
subspecies of waterbird
Specific criteria based on fish

• Criterion 7: A wetland should be considered internationally

important if it supports a significant proportion of
indigenous fish subspecies, species or families, life-history
stages, species interactions and/or populations that are
representative of wetland benefits and/or values and thereby
contributes to global biological diversity.

• Criterion 8: A wetland should be considered internationally

important if it is an important source of food for fishes,
spawning ground, nursery and/or migration path on which
fish stocks, either within the wetland or elsewhere, depend.
Specific criteria based on other taxa

• Criterion 9: A wetland should be considered

internationally important if it regularly supports 1%
of the individuals in a population of one species or
subspecies of wetland-dependent non-avian animal
species.
 CREATING NEW PROTECTED AREAS
Creating new protected areas requires the following
steps

1.Identifying priorities for conservation

2.Determining those areas of each country that

should be protected to meet conservation

3.Linking new protected areas to existing conservation

networks, using techniques such as gap analysis
 1. PRIORITIZATION:WHAT SHOULD BE
PROTECTED?
 In a crowded world with limited natural resources and
limited funding , it is crucial to establish priorities for
conserving biological diversity.

 Numerous species are in danger of going extinct and there

are not resources available to save them all

 We must address three interrelated question:

 What needs to be protected?
 Where should it be protected?
 How should it be protected?
 1.PRIORITIZATION:WHAT SHOULD BE PROTECTED?

 Three criteria can be used to answer the first two questions and
set conservation priorities:

A: DISTINCTIVENESS (IRREPLACEABILITY): An
ecosystem composed primarily of rare endemic species or that
has other unusual attributes (scenic value, geological feature) is
given higher priority for conservation
 Taxonomically distinctive species , that is it is the only species
in its genus or family
 Population of species having unusual genetic characteristics that
distinguish it from other populations of the species
 1.PRIORITIZATION:WHAT SHOULD BE
PROTECTED?
 Three criteria can be used to answer the first two questions
and set conservation priorities:

B. ENDANGERMENT (VULNERABILITY):Species in
danger of extinction ; ecosystem threatened with imminent
destruction are of greater concern

C. UTILITY (VALUE): Species that have present or potential

value to people are given more conservation priority.
 Ecosystems of major economic value , such as coastal
wetlands , are usually given greater priority for protection
than less valuable communities
 2. DETERMINING WHICH AREAS T SHOULD BE
PROTECTED
A.SPECIES APPROACH: One approach to establishing
conservation priorities involves protecting a particular
species. Protected areas are usually established to protect species of
special concern , such as rare species , endangered species , keystone
species.
 Species that provides a reason for establishing a protected area are
known as Focal species.

 TYPE OF FOCAL SPECIES

 INDICATOR SPECIES - Indicator species are intended either
to represent community composition or to reflect environmental
change. Species used in a conservation plan to identify and often
protect a biological community or set of ecosystem processes
 2. DETERMINING WHICH AREAS SHOULD BE
PROTECTED
A.SPECIES APPROACH
 TYPE OF FOCAL SPECIES
 FLAGSHIP SPECIES- Often large, well known species that is one of
‘charismatic megafauna” ( species that captures public attention and aids
in conservation efforts)
-Many protected areas have been created to protect flagship species thus
whole ecosystems that may consist of thousands of other species and
their associated ecosystem processes are also protected.

 UMBRELLA SPECIES- Flagship and indicator species, whose

protection automatically extends protection to other species and the
community , are therefore known as umbrella species
 2. DETERMINING WHICH AREAS SHOULD BE
PROTECTED
B. ECOSYSTEM APPROACH: A number of
conservationists have argued that ecosystems and the
biological communities that contain ,rather that species,
should be targeted for conservation

 The ecosystem and biological communities they contain

representative sites of as many types of ecosystems as
possible are protected.

 Representative site includes species and environmental

conditions characteristic of a larger area
 2. DETERMINING WHICH AREAS SHOULD BE
PROTECTED
C: THE HOTSPOT APPROACH
• Areas of high endemism and high biodiversity
 Biodiversity Indicators : Species or groups of species that
provide an estimate of the biodiversity in an area or that can
be used to guide protection efforts when data on the whole
community is unavailable
 Endemism : Species occurring in a particular area and
nowhere else
 Wilderness Areas : Large blocks of land that have been
minimally affected by human activity
-Serve as controls to show what natural communities are
like without human influence
 3.LINKING NEW PROTECTED AREAS TO EXISTING
CONSERVATION NETWORKS
Gap Analysis
 One way to determine the effectiveness of ecosystem and
community conservation programs is to compare biodiversity
priorities with existing and proposed protected areas to
determine gaps in protection
 Steps of Gap Analysis:
1. Data compiled
2. Conservation goals identified
3. Existing conservation areas reviewed
4. Additional areas are identified to help meeting conservation
goals (filling in the gaps)
5. Additional areas acquired for conservation and management
plan is developed and implemented
6. New protected areas are monitored
 3.LINKING NEW PROTECTED AREAS TO EXISTING
CONSERVATION NETWORKS
Conservation Units
 Species, ecosystems, and physical features of a region; data about
them are gathered and stored by conservation organizations
Complementary Areas
 Conservation strategy in which each newly established protected area
adds additional species or other aspects of biodiversity to an existing
system of protected area

Gap Species
 Species not protected in any part of their range; many are threatened
with extinction
Geographic Information Systems
 Computer analysis that integrate and display spatial data; important to
pinpoint critical areas for protection
 DESIGNING NETWORKS OF PROTECTED AREAS
 ISSUES OF RESERVE DESIGN
 Reserve design which will optimize biodiversity protection often
start by considering ‘the 4 Rs’
– Representation: The protected area should contain as many
aspects of biodiversity (species , populations , habitat , etc) as
possible.
– Resiliency: Protected areas must be sufficiently large to maintain
all aspects of biodiversity in a healthy condition for the foreseeable
future , including predicted impacts of climate change
– Redundancy: Protected areas must include enough examples of
each aspect of biodiversity to ensure the long term existence of the
unit in the face of future uncertainties
– Reality: There must be sufficient funds and political will ,not only
to acquire and protect lands, but also to subsequently regulate and
manage the protected areas.
 ISSUES OF RESERVE DESIGN
 Protected Area Size and characteristics
 ISSUES OF RESERVE DESIGN
 Protected Area Size and characteristics