Chapter 6: Formal Relational Query

Languages

Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
 Chapter 6: Formal Relational Query Languages

 Relational Algebra
 Tuple Relational Calculus
 Domain Relational Calculus

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relational Algebra
 Procedural language
 Six basic operators
 select: 
 project: 
 union: 
 set difference: –
 Cartesian product: x
 rename: 
 The operators take one or two relations as inputs and produce a new
relation as a result.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Select Operation – Example
 Relation r

A=B ^ D > 5 (r)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Select Operation
 Notation:  p(r)
 p is called the selection predicate
 Defined as:

p(r) = {t | t  r and p(t)}

Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting of terms

connected by :  (and),  (or),  (not)
Each term is one of:
<attribute> op <attribute> or <constant>
where op is one of: =, , >, . <. 

 Example of selection:

 dept_name=“Physics”(instructor)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Project Operation – Example
 Relation r:

 A,C (r)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Project Operation
 Notation:
 A1 , A2 , , Ak (r )
where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.
 The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained by erasing
the columns that are not listed
 Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are sets
 Example: To eliminate the dept_name attribute of instructor

ID, name, salary (instructor)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Union Operation – Example
 Relations r, s:

 r  s:

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Union Operation
 Notation: r  s
 Defined as:
r  s = {t | t  r or t  s}
 For r  s to be valid.
1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (example: 2nd column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd
column of s)

 Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in the
Spring 2010 semester, or in both

course_id ( semester=“Fall” Λ year=2009 (section)) 

course_id ( semester=“Spring” Λ year=2010 (section))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set difference of two relations
 Relations r, s:

 r – s:

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set Difference Operation
 Notation r – s
 Defined as:
r – s = {t | t  r and t  s}

 Set differences must be taken between compatible relations.

 r and s must have the same arity
 attribute domains of r and s must be compatible

 Example: to find all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, but
not in the Spring 2010 semester

course_id ( semester=“Fall” Λ year=2009 (section)) −

course_id ( semester=“Spring” Λ year=2010 (section))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Cartesian-Product Operation – Example
 Relations r, s:

 r x s:

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Cartesian-Product Operation
 Notation r x s
 Defined as:
r x s = {t q | t  r and q  s}

 Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are

disjoint. (That is, R  S = ).
 If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then
renaming must be used.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Composition of Operations
 Can build expressions using multiple operations
 Example: A=C(r x s)

 rxs

 A=C(r x s)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Rename Operation
 Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of relational-
algebra expressions.
 Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.
 Example:

 x (E)

returns the expression E under the name X

 If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then

 x( A (E )
1 , A 2 ,..., A n )
returns the result of expression E under the name X, and with the

attributes renamed to A1 , A2 , …., An .

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Query
 Find the largest salary in the university
 Step 1: find instructor salaries that are less than some other
instructor salary (i.e. not maximum)
– using a copy of instructor under a new name d
 instructor.salary ( instructor.salary < d,salary

(instructor x d (instructor)))
 Step 2: Find the largest salary
 salary (instructor) –
instructor.salary ( instructor.salary < d,salary

(instructor x d (instructor)))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all instructors in the Physics department, along with the
course_id of all courses they have taught

 Query 1

instructor.ID,course_id (dept_name=“Physics” (
 instructor.ID=teaches.ID (instructor x teaches)))
 Query 2

instructor.ID,course_id (instructor.ID=teaches.ID (
 dept_name=“Physics” (instructor) x teaches))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Formal Definition
 A basic expression in the relational algebra consists of either one of the
following:
 A relation in the database
 A constant relation
 Let E1 and E2 be relational-algebra expressions; the following are all
relational-algebra expressions:
 E1  E 2

 E1 – E 2

 E1 x E 2

 p (E1), P is a predicate on attributes in E1

 s(E1), S is a list consisting of some of the attributes in E1

  x (E1), x is the new name for the result of E1

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Additional Operations
We define additional operations that do not add any power to the
relational algebra, but that simplify common queries.

 Set intersection
 Natural join
 Assignment
 Outer join

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set-Intersection Operation
 Notation: r  s
 Defined as:
 r  s = { t | t  r and t  s }
 Assume:
 r, s have the same arity
 attributes of r and s are compatible
 Note: r  s = r – (r – s)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set-Intersection Operation – Example

 Relation r, s:

 rs

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural-Join Operation
 Notation: r s
 Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.
Then, r s is a relation on schema R  S obtained as follows:

 Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.

 If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes in R  S, add a

tuple t to the result, where

 t has the same value as tr on r

 t has the same value as ts on s

 Example:
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D)
 Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
 r s is defined as:
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural Join Example
 Relations r, s:

 r s

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural Join and Theta Join
 Find the names of all instructors in the Comp. Sci. department together with
the course titles of all the courses that the instructors teach
  name, title ( dept_name=“Comp. Sci.” (instructor teaches course))
 Natural join is associative
 (instructor teaches) course is equivalent to
instructor (teaches course)
 Natural join is commutative
 instruct teaches is equivalent to
teaches instructor
 The theta join operation r s is defined as

 r s =  (r x s)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Assignment Operation
 The assignment operation () provides a convenient way to
express complex queries.
 Write query as a sequential program consisting of
 a series of assignments
 followed by an expression whose value is displayed as a
result of the query.
 Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation
variable.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join
 An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of information.
 Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation that does not
match tuples in the other relation to the result of the join.
 Uses null values:
 null signifies that the value is unknown or does not exist
 All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking) false by
definition.
 We shall study precise meaning of comparisons with nulls later

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join – Example
 Relation instructor1

ID name dept_name
10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci.
12121 Wu Finance
15151 Mozart Music

 Relation teaches1

ID course_id
10101 CS-101
12121 FIN-201
76766 BIO-101

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join – Example
 Join

instructor teaches

ID name dept_name course_id

10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci. CS-101
12121 Wu Finance FIN-201

 Left Outer Join

instructor teaches

ID name dept_name course_id

10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci. CS-101
12121 Wu Finance FIN-201
15151 Mozart Music null

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join – Example
 Right Outer Join
instructor teaches

ID name dept_name course_id

10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci. CS-101
12121 Wu Finance FIN-201
76766 null null BIO-101
 Full Outer Join
instructor teaches

ID name dept_name course_id

10101 Srinivasan Comp. Sci. CS-101
12121 Wu Finance FIN-201
15151 Mozart Music null
76766 null null BIO-101

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join using Joins
 Outer join can be expressed using basic operations
 e.g. r s can be written as

(r s) U (r – ∏R(r s) x {(null, …, null)}

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Null Values
 It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by null, for some
of their attributes
 null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not exist.
 The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is null.
 Aggregate functions simply ignore null values (as in SQL)
 For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated like any other
value, and two nulls are assumed to be the same (as in SQL)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Null Values
 Comparisons with null values return the special truth value: unknown
 If false was used instead of unknown, then not (A < 5)
would not be equivalent to A >= 5
 Three-valued logic using the truth value unknown:
 OR: (unknown or true) = true,
(unknown or false) = unknown
(unknown or unknown) = unknown
 AND: (true and unknown) = unknown,
(false and unknown) = false,
(unknown and unknown) = unknown
 NOT: (not unknown) = unknown
 In SQL “P is unknown” evaluates to true if predicate P evaluates to
unknown
 Result of select predicate is treated as false if it evaluates to unknown

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Division Operator
 Given relations r(R) and s(S), such that S  R, r  s is the largest
relation t(R-S) such that
txsr
 E.g. let r(ID, course_id) = ID, course_id (takes ) and
s(course_id) = course_id (dept_name=“Biology”(course )
then r  s gives us students who have taken all courses in the Biology
department
 Can write r  s as
temp1  R-S (r )

temp2  temp1 x s
temp3  R-S (temp1 – r )
result = temp1 – temp3
 The result to the right of the  is assigned to the relation variable on
the left of the .
 May use variable in subsequent expressions.
Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 University Schema
 Classroom(building, room_number, capacity)
 Department(dept_name, building, budget)
 Course(course_id, title, dept_name, credits)
 Instructor(ID, name, dept_name, salary)
 Section(course_id, sec_id, semester, year, building, room_number,
time_slot_id)
 Teaches(ID,course_id,sec_id,semester, year)
 Student(ID,name,dept_name,tot_credit)
 Takes(ID, course_id, sec_id, semester, year, grade)
 Advisor(s_ID, i_ID)
 Time_slot(time_slot_id, day, start_time, end_time)
 Prereq(course_id, prereq_id)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Employee Schema
 Employee(person_name, street, city)
 Works(person_name, company_name, salary)
 Company(company_name, city)
 Manages(person_name, manager_name)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Extended Relational-Algebra-Operations
 Generalized Projection
 Aggregate Functions

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Generalized Projection
 Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic functions to be
used in the projection list.

F1 ,F2 ,...,Fn (E)

 E is any relational-algebra expression

 Each of F1, F2, …, Fn are are arithmetic expressions involving constants
and attributes in the schema of E.
 Given relation instructor(ID, name, dept_name, salary) where salary is
annual salary, get the same information but with monthly salary
ID, name, dept_name, salary/12 (instructor)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions and Operations
 Aggregation function takes a collection of values and returns a single
value as a result.
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
 Aggregate operation in relational algebra
G1 ,G2 ,,Gn F1 ( A1 ),F2 ( A2 ,, Fn ( An ) (E)

E is any relational-algebra expression

 G1, G2 …, Gn is a list of attributes on which to group (can be empty)
 Each Fi is an aggregate function
 Each Ai is an attribute name
 Note: Some books/articles use  instead of (Calligraphic G)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Operation – Example
 Relation r:
A B C

  7
  7
  3
  10

 (r) sum(c )
sum(c)
27

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Operation – Example
 Find the average salary in each department

dept_name avg(salary) (instructor)

avg_salary

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
 Result of aggregation does not have a name
 Can use rename operation to give it a name
 For convenience, we permit renaming as part of aggregate
operation

dept_name avg(salary) as avg_sal (instructor)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Modification of the Database
 The content of the database may be modified using the following
operations:
 Deletion
 Insertion
 Updating
 All these operations can be expressed using the assignment
operator

 Deletion: R  R – E where E is a relational algebra expression

(only for complete tuples)
 Insertion: R  R U E
 Update: R  A1,A2,???,An(R) changes all values of an attribute
 To update values in just a few tuples?

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Multiset Relational Algebra
 Pure relational algebra removes all duplicates
 e.g. after projection
 Multiset relational algebra retains duplicates, to match SQL semantics
 SQL duplicate retention was initially for efficiency, but is now a
feature
 Multiset relational algebra defined as follows
 selection: has as many duplicates of a tuple as in the input, if the
tuple satisfies the selection
 projection: one tuple per input tuple, even if it is a duplicate
 cross product: If there are m copies of t1 in r, and n copies of t2
in s, there are m x n copies of t1.t2 in r x s
 Other operators similarly defined
 E.g. union: m + n copies, intersection: min(m, n) copies
difference: min(0, m – n) copies

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.43 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 SQL and Relational Algebra
 select A1, A2, .. An
from r1, r2, …, rm
where P
is equivalent to the following expression in multiset relational algebra

 A1, .., An ( P (r1 x r2 x .. x rm))

 select A1, A2, sum(A3)
from r1, r2, …, rm
where P
group by A1, A2
is equivalent to the following expression in multiset relational algebra

A1, A2 sum(A3) ( P (r1 x r2 x .. x rm)))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.44 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 SQL and Relational Algebra
 More generally, the non-aggregated attributes in the select clause
may be a subset of the group by attributes, in which case the
equivalence is as follows:

select A1, sum(A3)

from r1, r2, …, rm
where P
group by A1, A2
is equivalent to the following expression in multiset relational algebra

 A1,sumA3( A1,A2 sum(A3) as sumA3(  P (r1 x r2 x .. x rm)))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.45 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Tuple Relational Calculus

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.46 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Tuple Relational Calculus
 A nonprocedural query language, where each query is of the form
{t | P (t ) }
 It is the set of all tuples t such that predicate P is true for t
 t is a tuple variable, t [A ] denotes the value of tuple t on attribute A
 t  r denotes that tuple t is in relation r
 P is a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.47 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Predicate Calculus Formula

1. Set of attributes and constants

2. Set of comparison operators: (e.g., , , , , , )
3. Set of connectives: and (), or (v)‚ not ()
4. Implication (): x  y, if x if true, then y is true
x  y x v y
5. Set of quantifiers:
 t r (Q (t )) ’’there exists” a tuple t in relation r
such that predicate Q (t ) is true
 t r (Q (t )) Q is true “for all” tuples t in relation r

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.48 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the ID, name, dept_name, salary for instructors whose salary is
greater than $80,000

{t | t  instructor  t [salary ]  80000}

 As in the previous query, but output only the ID attribute value

{t |  s instructor (t [ID ] = s [ID ]  s [salary ]  80000)}

Notice that an output relation on schema (ID) is implicitly defined by

the query

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.49 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all instructors whose department is in the Watson
building

 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in
the Spring 2010 semester, or both

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.50 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all instructors whose department is in the Watson
building

{t | s  instructor (t [name ] = s [name ]

 u  department (u [dept_name ] = s[dept_name]
 u [building] = “Watson” ))}

 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in
the Spring 2010 semester, or both

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.51 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all instructors whose department is in the Watson
building

{t | s  instructor (t [name ] = s [name ]

 u  department (u [dept_name ] = s[dept_name]
 u [building] = “Watson” ))}

 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in
the Spring 2010 semester, or both

{t | s  section (t [course_id ] = s [course_id ] 

s [semester] = “Fall”  s [year] = 2009)
v u  section (t [course_id ] = u [course_id ] 
u [semester] = “Spring”  u [year] = 2010)}

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.52 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, and in
the Spring 2010 semester

 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, but not in
the Spring 2010 semester

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.53 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, and in
the Spring 2010 semester

{t | s  section (t [course_id ] = s [course_id ] 

s [semester] = “Fall”  s [year] = 2009
 u  section ( s [course_id ] = u [course_id ] 
u [semester] = “Spring”  u [year] = 2010))}

 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, but not in
the Spring 2010 semester

{t | s  section (t [course_id ] = s [course_id ] 

s [semester] = “Fall”  s [year] = 2009
  u  section (t [course_id ] = u [course_id ] 
u [semester] = “Spring”  u [year] = 2010))}

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.54 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Universal Quantification
 Find all students who have taken all courses offered in the
Biology department

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.55 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Universal Quantification
 Find all students who have taken all courses offered in the
Biology department
 {t |  r  student (t [ID] = r [ID]) 
( u  course (u [dept_name]=“Biology” 
 s  takes (t [ID] = s [ID ] 
s [course_id] = u [course_id])))}

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.56 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Domain Relational Calculus

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.57 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Domain Relational Calculus
 A nonprocedural query language equivalent in power to the tuple
relational calculus
 Each query is an expression of the form:

{  x1, x2, …, xn  | P (x1, x2, …, xn)}

 x1, x2, …, xn represent domain variables

 P represents a formula similar to that of the predicate calculus

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.58 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the ID, name, dept_name, salary for instructors whose salary is
greater than $80,000
 {< i, n, d, s> | < i, n, d, s>  instructor  s  80000}
 As in the previous query, but output only the ID attribute value
 {< i> | < i, n, d, s>  instructor  s  80000}
 Find the names of all instructors whose department is in the Watson
building
{< n > |  i, d, s (< i, n, d, s >  instructor
  b, a (< d, b, a>  department  b = “Watson” ))}

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.59 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in
the Spring 2010 semester, or both

 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, and in
the Spring 2010 semester

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.60 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, or in
the Spring 2010 semester, or both
{<c> |  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, r, t >  section 
s = “Fall”  y = 2009 )
v  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, r, t >  section ] 
s = “Spring”  y = 2010)}
This case can also be written as
{<c> |  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, r, t >  section 
( (s = “Fall”  y = 2009 ) v (s = “Spring”  y = 2010))}
 Find the set of all courses taught in the Fall 2009 semester, and in
the Spring 2010 semester

{<c> |  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, r, t >  section 

s = “Fall”  y = 2009 )
  a, s, y, b, r, t ( <c, a, s, y, b, r, t >  section ] 
s = “Spring”  y = 2010)}

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.61 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Universal Quantification

 Find all students who have taken all courses offered in the Biology
department

* Above query fixes bug in page 246, last query

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.62 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Universal Quantification

 Find all students who have taken all courses offered in the Biology
department
 {< i > |  n, d, tc ( < i, n, d, tc >  student 
( ci, ti, dn, cr ( < ci, ti, dn, cr >  course  dn =“Biology”

  si, se, y, g ( <i, ci, si, se, y, g>  takes ))}

 Note that without the existential quantification on student, the
above query would be unsafe if the Biology department has
not offered any courses.

* Above query fixes bug in page 246, last query

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.63 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Safety of Expressions

Any formula that could result in an infinite relation.

{t | (t  instructor)}
{<i,n,d,s> | (<i,n,d,s>  instructor) }

{<x> |  y (<x, y>  r)   z ((<x, z>  r)) } (not ok)

{<x> |  y (<x, y>  r)   z ((<x, z>  r)  P(x, z)) } (ok depending on P)

e.g. P(x,z): x > 5  z = ‘ABC’

e.g. P(x,z): x = 9   q (<z, q>  student)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.64 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 End of Chapter 6

Database System Concepts, 6th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
 Figure 6.01

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.66 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.02

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.67 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.03

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.68 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.04

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.69 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.05

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.70 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.06

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.71 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.07

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.72 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.08

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.73 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.09

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.74 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.10

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.75 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.11

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.76 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.12

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.77 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.13

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.78 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.14

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.79 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.15

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.80 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.16

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.81 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.17

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.82 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.18

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.83 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.19

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.84 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.20

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.85 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Figure 6.21

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.86 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Deletion
 A delete request is expressed similarly to a query, except instead
of displaying tuples to the user, the selected tuples are removed
from the database.
 Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete values on only
particular attributes
 A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by:
rr–E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra query.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.87 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Deletion Examples
 Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch.

account  account – branch_name = “Perryridge” (account )

 Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50

loan  loan – amount 0and amount  50 (loan)

 Delete all accounts at branches located in Needham.

r1  branch_city = “Needham” (account branch )

r2   account_number, branch_name, balance (r1)

r3   customer_name, account_number (r2 depositor)

account  account – r2
depositor  depositor – r3

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.88 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Insertion
 To insert data into a relation, we either:
 specify a tuple to be inserted
 write a query whose result is a set of tuples to be inserted
 in relational algebra, an insertion is expressed by:
r r  E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra expression.
 The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by letting E be a constant
relation containing one tuple.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.89 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Insertion Examples
 Insert information in the database specifying that Smith has $1200 in
account A-973 at the Perryridge branch.

account  account  {(“A-973”, “Perryridge”, 1200)}

depositor  depositor  {(“Smith”, “A-973”)}

 Provide as a gift for all loan customers in the Perryridge

branch, a $200 savings account. Let the loan number serve
as the account number for the new savings account.

r1  (branch_name = “Perryridge” (borrower loan))

account  account  loan_number, branch_name, 200 (r1)
depositor  depositor  customer_name, loan_number (r1)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.90 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Updating
 A mechanism to change a value in a tuple without charging all values in
the tuple
 Use the generalized projection operator to do this task

 Each Fi is either
 the I th attribute of r, if the I th attribute is not updated, or,
 if the attribute is to be updated Fi is an expression, involving only
constants and the attributes of r, which gives the new value for the
attribute

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.91 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Update Examples

 Make interest payments by increasing all balances by 5 percent.

account   account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (account)

 Pay all accounts with balances over $10,000 6 percent interest

and pay all others 5 percent

account   account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.06 ( BAL  10000 (account ))

  account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (BAL  10000 (account))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.92 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all customers who have a loan and an account at
bank.

customer_name (borrower)  customer_name (depositor)

 Find the name of all customers who have a loan at the bank and the
loan amount

customer_name, loan_number, amount (borrower loan)

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.93 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find all customers who have an account from at least the “Downtown”
and the Uptown” branches.
 Query 1

customer_name (branch_name = “Downtown” (depositor account )) 

customer_name (branch_name = “Uptown” (depositor account))

 Query 2

customer_name, branch_name (depositor account)

 temp(branch_name) ({(“Downtown” ), (“Uptown” )})

Note that Query 2 uses a constant relation.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.94 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Bank Example Queries
 Find all customers who have an account at all branches located in
Brooklyn city.

customer_name, branch_name (depositor account)

 branch_name (branch_city = “Brooklyn” (branch))

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 6.95 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan