RELAYING

FUNDAMENTALS
.
LIST OF DEVICE NUMBER
2 – TIME DELAY STARTING OR CLOSING RELAY.

3 – CHECKING OR INTERLOCKING RELAY.

21 – DISTANCE RELAY.
25 – SYNCHRONIZING OR SYNCHRONISM CHECK
RELAY.
27 – UNDERVOLTAGE RELAY.
30 – ANNUCIATOR RELAY.
32 – DIRECTIONAL POWER RELAY.
37 – UNDERCURRENT OR UNDERPOWER RELAY.
40 – FIELD FAILURE RELAY.
46 – REVERSE PHASE OR PHASE BALANCE CURRENT RELAY.
49 – MACHINE OR TRANSFORMER THERMAL RELAY.
50 – INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT OR RATE OF RISE RELAY.
51 – AC TIME OVERCURRENT RELAY.
52 – AC CIRCUIT BREAKER.
52A – CIRCUIT BREAKER UXILLIARY SWITCH – NORMALLY OPEN.
52B – CIRCUIT BREAKER AUXILLIARY SWITCH – NORMALLY CLOSED.
55 – POWER FACTOR RELAY.
56 – FIELD APPLICATION RELAY.
59 – OVERVOLTAGE RELAY.
60 – VOLTAGE OR CURRENT BALANCE RELAY
64 – EARTH FAULT PROTECTIVE RELAY.
67 – AC DIRECTIONAL OVERCURRENT RELAY.
68 – BLOCKING RELAY.
74 – ALARM RELAY.
76 – DC OVERCURRENT RELAY.
78 – PHASE ANGLE MEASURING OR OUT OF STEP
PROTECTIVE RELAY.
79 – AC RECLOSING RELAY.
81 – FREQUENCY RELAY.
83 – AUTOMATIC SELECTIVE CONTROL OR TRANSFER
RELAY.
85 – CARRIER OR PILOT WIRE RECEIVE RELAY.
86 – LOCKING OUT RELAY.
87 – DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTIVE RELAY.
 LEGENDS
51N – RESIDUAL GROUND OVERCURRENT RELAY 0.5 – 2.5 A.
63 – SUDDEN PRESSURE RELAY.
63X – AUXILLIARY RELAY FOR SUDDEN PRESSURE.
79 – RECLOSING RELAY, 3 SHOT DC OPERATED TIMER.
86 – TRIPPING & LOCKOUT RELAY.
87B – BUS DIFFERENTIAL RELAY, HIGH SPEED, HIGH
INPEDANCE VOLTAGE UNIT
WITH LOW INPEDANCE INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT UNIT.
87T – TRANSFORMER BANK DIFFERENTIAL RELAY,
PERCENTAGE, 2 RESTRAINTS.
 LEGENDS
87G – RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT RELAY.
94 – AUXILLIARY TRIPPING RELAY.
A – AMMETER
KWH – BILLING KILOWATT HOUR METER W/ DEMAND INDICATOR.
VAR – VARMETER
V – VOLTMETER
W – WATTMETER
AS – AMMETER SWITCH
VS – VOLTMETER SWITCH
67 – DUAL POLARIZED, TIME & INSTANTANEOUS GROUND DIRECTIONAL
GT OVERCURRENT RELAY.
12 – ZONE PACKAGE, MHO CHARACTERISTICS, COMPENSATOR DISTANCE
RELAY
Z-1 (ZONE – 1).
21 – ZONE PACKAGED, MHO CHARACTERISTICS WITH OFFSET OPTION,
Z-2 COMPENSATOR DISTANCE RELAY (ZONE – 2).
 LEGENDS
21 - ZONE PACKAGED, MHO CHARACTERISTICS WITH
Z-3 OFFSET OPTION, COMPENSATOR DISTANCE
RELAY (ZONE – 3).
50H – HIGH SET NONDIRECTIONAL INSTANTANEOUS
OVERCURRENT RELAY.
2 – TOW – ZONE TIMING AUXILLIARY RELAY (ATARTING
OR CLOSING).
27 – UNDERVOLTAGE RELAY, 115 VOLTS.
27X – UNDERVOLTAGE TIMING RELAY FOR TRANSFER
SCHEME.
50 – INSTANTANEOUS OVERCURRENT RELAYS.
50-51– PHASE OVERCURRENT RELAY WITH INSTATANEOUS
UNIT 1.0 – 12 A (6 -14 A ITT).
51G – TRANSFORMER NEUTRAL GROUND OVERCURRENT
RELAY 0.5 – 2.5 A.
 PRINCIPLES OF
PROTECTIVE RELAYING
 Part 1:
Power System Protection
 Electric Power System

Electricity is generated at a power plant (1), voltage is “stepped-up” for

transmission (2). energy travels along a transmission line to the area where the
power is needed (3). voltage is decreased or “stepped-down,” at another substation
(4), and a distribution power line (5) carries that electricity until it reaches a home
or business (6).
 INCOMING INCOMING
115kV LINE 1 115kV LINE 2
Bus No. 1 LEGEND:
Initial
Ultimate

115KV Switchyard

Bus No. 2

Bank #1 Bank #2 Bank #3

83 MVA PXF
with OLTC

34.5kV switchgear No. 1

34.5KV Switchyard

F1 F2 F3 F4 Bus tie F1 F2 F3 F4 7.2 MVAR

Bus tie F1 F2 F3 F4 7.2 MVAR
7.2 MVAR
Capacitor Bank Capacitor Bank
Capacitor Bank

TYPICAL DISTRIBUTION SUBSTATION

Single Line Diagram
 What is Power System
Protection?

also known as Protective Relaying

branch of Electric Power
Engineering
Science, Art and Skill in applying
and setting protective relays &
devices.
 What is a protective relay?

Protective relays are devices which

monitor power system conditions and
operate to quickly and accurately
isolate faults or dangerous conditions.
A well designed protective system
can limit damage to equipment, as
well as minimize the extent of
associated service interruption.
Purpose of System Protection

To prevent injury to personnel

To minimize damage to system
components
To limit the extent and duration of
service interruption
Components of Power System
Protection

Relays
Circuit Breakers
Transducers
Tripping and Auxiliary Supplies
Components of Power System Protection
Decides whether system
quantities are normal or
abnormal (Brain of the
System Protection)

Transducers
Power Circuit
(PT & CT) Relay
System Breaker

These devices change * If quantities are normal,

electrical quantities to no signal is sent to breaker
level relays can use, i.e., * If quantities are abnormal,
5 amperes, 115 volts signal is sent to breaker to
trip
Components of Power System Protection

Sensor (Instrument
Transformers)

Feedback
Signals

Relay

Power Circuit Breaker

Components of Power System Protection

CB CT
Transmission
Line

Trip Coil

Station
Battery
Relay Contacts
Frequency of Types of
Faults
Type of %
Fault Occurrence

SLG 85
LL 8
DLG 5
3L 2 or less
Frequency of Fault Occurrence

Equipment % of Total

Overhead lines 50
Cables 10
Switchgear 15
Transformers 12
CTs and PTs 2
Control Equipment 3
Miscellaneous 8
Factors Which Influence Design

of a Protective System
Reliability
 Dependability

 Security

Sensitivity
Selectivity
Speed
Economics
Experience
Industry Standards
 Factors Which Influence Design
of a Protective System

Sensitivity
Relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive so
that it will operate when required
Must discriminate normal from abnormal conditions.
 Factors Which Influence Design
of a Protective System

Selectivity
Performance of protective devices to select between
those conditions for which prompt operation and
those for which no operation, or time delay operation
is required.
Isolate faulted circuit resulting in minimum
interruptions.
Implemented through “Zone of Protection”
 Factors Which Influence Design
of a Protective System

Speed
Remove a fault from the power system as quickly as
possible
Classification:
 Instantaneous - no intentional delay

 High Speed - less than 3 cycles

 Time-Delay - intentional time delay

 Factors Which Influence Design
of a Protective System

Economics
Maximum protection at minimum cost
the cost of installation, operation, and maintenance of
the protection system which must be weighted
against potential losses due to equipment damage or
service interruption.
 Part 2:
Principles of
Protective Relaying
Development of Protective Relays

• Electro-mechanical relay

• Solid-state relay

• Digital relay
 Electro-mechanical Relay:
( 1st Generation )

The most commonly used

Uses the induction disc principle
(watthour meter)
Provides individual phase
protection
 Electro-mechanical Relay:
( 1st Generation )

Time Adjustment:
Spring
Tension controlled
Contacts
Operator Rod

Sensing Coil

Core
Disc
 Electro-mechanical Relay:
( 1st Generation )

Critical Components:
• Composition of the rotating disc & Coil
• determines the torque produced in the disc per unit current.
• Rotating & Tripping mechanism
• Lubrication & alignments.
• Spring & tension adjusting mechanism
• Fatigue & Temperature dependence.

Design Approach:
• Periodic re-calibration & maintenance
• ‘Draw-out’ connections.
• High burden CT, low sensitivity at higher currents.
 Static Relay:
( 2nd Generation )

Characteristic curve is obtained

through use of RC timing circuits
No moving parts
Used to retrofit electro-mechanical
relays
Fast reset
Less maintenance
 Static Relay:
( 2nd Generation )

Set Value
Comparator Timing Output
Circuit

AC - DC
Conversion
A B C E RC Based Timing

Current Sampling
From CTs
 Static Relay:
( 2nd Generation )

Critical Components:
• RC Timing circuit.
• Temperature dependence
• Low repeatability V

Time
 Static Relay:
( 2nd Generation )

Critical Components: (continued…)

•AC/DC Conversion.
• Offset problem
• Effects of harmonics & Noise
 Static Relay:
( 2nd Generation )
Design Approach:
• Periodic re-calibration & maintenance
• ‘Draw-out’ connections.
• RC & LC Based filters - Slow tripping actions

Without Filter

With RC Filter
 Digital Relay:
( 3rd Generation )

Computer-based-with CPU
Selectable characteristic curves
and protection functions
Metering and control functions
Event and/or disturbance recording
Remote communication
Self-monitoring
“All in”
 Digital Relay:
( MicroProcessor Based )

Crystal Micro-processor
CPU

Data & Address Bus

Memory EPROM

Output Control Control Relay Contacts

AC - DC
Conversion
A B C E Current Sampling
 Digital Relay:
( MicroProcessor Based )

Design Principle:
•AC/ DC
• Rectification
• Analog to Digital Conversion A to D
 Digital Relay:
( MicroProcessor Based )

Critical Components:
• High Frequency Bus
• Susceptible to EMI/ RFI.
•AC/ DC & Digital Conversion
• Effect of Offset/ Harmonics, etc.

CPU

RAM
EPROM
A/D Hi-Freq Bus
 Digital Relay:
( MicroProcessor Based )

Critical Components:
• High Frequency Bus
• Susceptible to EMI/ RFI.
•AC/ DC & Digital Conversion
• Effect of Offset/ Harmonics, etc.

Noise

A to D
 Digital Relay:
( MicroProcessor Based )
Design Approach:
• RC & LC Based filters
• Slow tripping actions
• Shielding & Watch-dog timers
• Problem reduced not eliminated
• May reset randomly
CPU

RAM
EPROM
Watch A/D
DOG
 Digital Relay:
( MicroController Based )

Crystal
-controller Output Control Relay Contacts

Steady state data

AC - DC
Conversion
A B C E Current Sampling
 Digital Relay:
( MicroController Based )
Design Principle:
• Lesser no. of components, hence less chance of failure.
• All necessary peripherals in-built into the chip.
• More functions can be built in a compact space.

P C
• Controller • Controller
• RAM • A2D Converter
• EPROM • Output driver
• Decoding logic
• A2D Converter
• I/O Ports
• Output driver
 Digital Relay:
( MicroController Based )

Design Principle:
• Absence of exposed high frequency bus
• All necessary peripherals in-built into the chip.

Cost effective technology appropriate for MV applications

CPU

RAM EPROM

A/D
 Digital Relay:
( Numerical Relay )

Crystal Serial Port To Outside world

-controller
Output Control Relay Contacts

Steady state data

Direct AC
Sampling A B C E Current Sampling
 Digital Relay:
( Numerical Relay )

Design Principle:
• AC attenuation
• Analog to Digital Conversion
• Numeric filtering & measurement

A to D
 Digital Relay:
( Numerical Relay )
Design Principle: (continued…)
• Digital Signal Processing concepts
Time Domain Representation

• The normal representation i.e. with time in the X axis

• The signal is sampled periodically, a different value obtained every
time, thus a series of numbers are needed to represent a signal.

Amplitude

Disadvantages
• No Phase Angle information.
• No Frequency information.

Time
 Digital Relay:
( Numerical Relay )

Design Principle: (continued…)

• Digital Signal Processing concepts
Frequency Domain Representation

• X Axis now represents frequency, instead of time.

• Thus a pure sine-wave can be represented with only a single numeric.

Amplitude

50Hz

Frequency
 Digital Relay:
( Numerical Relay )
Design Principle: (continued…)
• Digital Signal Processing concepts
Fourier Analysis
Any signal can be represented by infinite Nos. of Sine waves

Any Arbitrary Signal

=

+
Fundamental (50Hz). 2nd Harmonic (100 )
 Digital Relay:
( Numerical Relay )
Design Principle: (continued…)
• Digital Signal Processing concepts

Fourier Analysis

• X Axis now represents frequency, instead of time.

• Thus a arbitrary signal can be represented with a set of numbers.

Amplitude

50Hz 100Hz

Frequency
 Digital Relay:
( Numerical Relay )
Features:
• Very quick operation.
• In-built immunity to DC & harmonics (tuned
characteristics)
• Possibility of providing additional filtering or
inhibiting actions without sacrificing speed of
response.
• Possibility of disturbance recording & thus,
‘post-mortem’ analysis of fault & relay behavior.
• Highly stable & repeatable performance.
• Very less no. of components.
 Digital Relay:
( Numerical Relay )

Additional Features:
• Communication to external laptop/ computer.
• Large number of functions that that can be
programmed in a single enclosure, instead of a
combination of multiple discreet relays.
• Possibility of using non-conventional
transducers for input sensing. Eg. Hall effect
Current Transducers.
• A ‘Bay-level controller’ instead of just a
‘protection relay’.
Comparisons of Different type of Relays

Characteristic Electro- Static Micro- Micro- Numerical

mechanical processor Controller
based based
Speed of response Slow Fast Fast Fast Very Fast
Timing Accuracy Temp. Temp. Stable Stable Stable
Dependant Dependant
Size Bulky Small Small Small Very Compact
Draw-out required Required Required Not required Not required Not required
CT Burden High Low Low Low Low
Reset Time Very High Less Less Less Less
Functions Single Single Multi Multi Multi
function function function function function
Maintenance Frequent Frequent Low Low Very Low
Deterioration due to Yes No No No No
frequent operations
Reliability High Low Low High High
SCADA Compatibility No No Possible Possible Yes
Zones of Protection

Regions (zones) of power system that can be

protected adequately with fault recognition and
removal resulting in isolation of a minimum amount of
equipment.
Requirements: All power system elements must be
encompassed by at least one zone
Zones of protection must overlap to prevent any
system element from being unprotected (no “blind
spots”).
Zones of Protection

3 6
52

5 87B
1 50/51
52
87B
50/51
2 4 CT REQUIREMENTS FOR
OVERLAPPING ZONES
G
Zones of Protection

Overlapping zones of protection

Zones of Protection

3
5 1 - Bus Protection
2 - Generator Protection
3 - Subtrans Line Protection
1
4 - Feeder Protection
5 - Transformer Protection
2
G 4
Feeder Protection

Fault

G
Bus Protection

Fault

G
Transformer Protection

Fault

G
Subtransmission Line Protection

Fault

G
Generator Protection

Fault

G
Methods of Discrimination

 Current Magnitude

100 A 60 A 20 A

 Time

1.0 sec 0.35 sec Inst.

Methods of Discrimination

 Current Direction

 Distance Measurement

Z = V/I ohms
Methods of Discrimination

 Time and Current Magnitude

Time

Current
Methods of Discrimination

 Time and Distance

Zone 3
Time
Zone 2

Zone 1

Distance
Methods of Discrimination

 Current Balance

87T
Methods of Discrimination

 Phase Comparison
Types Of Protective Relays

Overcurrent Relays - are operated when

the current passing to the relay
exceeds a preset value. They are
not directional in nature.

Bus

I
51
 Radial Line Protection

CT
A

B 52
C

51N

51 Ground
Relay
Phase
Relays
Transformer Protection

CT

PCB

50/51
86T

87T TRIPS AND LOCKS-OUT

POWER HS AND LS PCB
TRANSFORMER

PCB
151G

CT
Busbar Protection

Typical Bus Arrangements:

Single bus
Double bus, double breaker
Breaker-and-a-half
Main and transfer buses with single breaker
Ring bus
Busbar Protection

Bus differential connection (single-bus)

87B

86B

TRIPS AND LOCKS-

OUT ALL BREAKERS
CONNECTED TO BUS

NOTE: All CTs connected to the bus

BUS differential must have same ratios.
Differential Protection

Load or External Fault Case

Primary Element

600/5 600/5

600A CT 5A 5A CT 600A

Relay 0A

5A 5A
Differential Protection

Internal Fault Case

Primary
Fault
Element

600/5 600/5

600A CT 5A 5A CT 600A

Relay 10A

5A 5A
 Part 3:
Relaying Philosophy
Power System

Delivery Delivery
Substation Substation
B
A
Looped Lines
(System Backbone)

Power Transformer

34.5kV Bus
Distribution
Radial Lines Capacitor Bank
Standard Protection

 Radial Lines
 Looped Lines
 Power Transformer
 Bus Bar
 Capacitor Bank
Radial Line Protection
ELECTRO-MECHANICAL
OVERCURRENT RELAY
BUS

TARGET
INST.
TARGET
3 TIME
50 50N
51 51N
CT

52 43R 79

LEGEND:
50 – INSTANTANEOUS, PHASE OVERCURRENT RELAY
CT 51 – TIME, PHASE OVERCURRENT RELAY
50N – INSTANTANEOUS, GROUND OVERCURRENT RELAY
51N – TIME, GROUND OVERCURRENT RELAY
43R – RECLOSER SWITCH
79 – AUTO RECLOSER RELAY
52 – POWER CIRCUIT BREAKER
CT – CURRENT TRANSFORMER
 Radial Line Protection
Four (4) units of
A B C single-phase
CT overcurrent
relays are needed to
protect a feeder
52

Ia

Ib In=Ia+Ib+Ic

Ground
Ic Relay

Phase
Relays
Transformer Protection

Overheating
Normal maximum working temp. = 95 °C
8-10 °C rise will halve the life of the transformer.
Overcurrent
Fuses for distribution transformer
Overcurrent relaying for 5MVA and above
Characteristics:
 Must be below the damage curve

 Must be above magnetizing inrush

 Transformer Protection

 Differential - 87T
 Overload - 51
 Back-up Ground - 151G
 Overheating - Thermal Relay
 Gas Detection - Buchholz Relay
 Sudden Pressure - Pressure Relief Valve
 Transformer Protection

CT

52

50/51
86T

87T
POWER TRANSFORMER

LEGEND:
87T – TRANSFORMER
52 DIFFERENTIAL RELAY
151G 86T – AUXILIARY LOCK-OUT RELAY
50 – INSTANTANEOUS OC RELAY
CT 151G – BACK-UP GROUND RELAY
52 – POWER CIRCUIT BREAKER
CT – CURRENT TRANSFORMER
Transformer Protection

Differential Relay
A relay that by its design or application
is intended to respond to the difference
between incoming and outgoing
electrical quantities associated with the
protected apparatus.