EC8551 COMMUNICATION NETWORKS LT PC 3003

UNIT I FUNDAMENTALS & LINK LAYER

Overview of Data Communications Networks – Building Network and its types– Overview of Internet -
Protocol Layering - OSI Mode – Physical Layer – Overview of Data and Signals - introduction to
Data Link Layer - Link layer Addressing- Error Detection and Correction
UNIT II MEDIA ACCESS & INTERNETWORKING
Overview of Data link Control and Media access control - Ethernet (802.3) - Wireless LANs – Available Protocols – Bluetooth –
Bluetooth Low Energy – WiFi – 6LowPAN–Zigbee – Network layer services – Packet Switching – IPV4 Address – Network
layer protocols ( IP, ICMP, Mobile IP)
UNIT III ROUTING
Routing - Unicast Routing – Algorithms – Protocols – Multicast Routing and its basics – Overview of Intradomain and interdomain
protocols – Overview of IPv6 Addressing – Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
UNIT IV TRANSPORT LAYER
Introduction to Transport layer –Protocols- User Datagram Protocols (UDP) and Transmission Control Protocols (TCP) –Services –
Features – TCP Connection – State Transition Diagram – Flow, Error and Congestion Control - Congestion avoidance
(DECbit, RED) – QoS – Application requirements
UNIT V APPLICATION LAYER
Application Layer Paradigms – Client Server Programming – World Wide Web and HTTP - DNS- Electronic Mail (SMTP, POP3,
IMAP, MIME) – Introduction to Peer to Peer Networks – Need for Cryptography and Network Security – Firewalls.

1.1
 UNIT - 1
Fundamentals and Link
Layer
 A network is a set of devices (often referred to
as nodes) connected by communication links.
A node can be a computer, printer, or any
other device capable of sending and/or
A network consists of two receiving
or more computers that are
data generated bylinked
other in orderonto share
nodes
resources (such as printersthe
and CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic
network.
communications.

The computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines,

radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
 Application of communication Networks

Email Online social networking

World Wide Web

Streaming audio and video Instant messaging File-sharing

1.4
 Data communications are the
components need for Data communication
exchange of data between two
devices via some form of
transmission medium such as a
wire cable.
set of rules that governs the data communications

Medium is a physical path eg:Twisted pair

Device that sends the Message Device that
wire, coaxial cable, fiber optic cable
eg :Computer, video camera, receive the
telephone hand set ,work station Message eg :
Computer,
television,
telephone hand
set ,work station

Twisted Pair Fiber Optical Cable

Coaxial Cable
Fundamental characteristics of Data communication

1.Delivery System must deliver data to the correct destination

2.Accuracy
System must deliver data accurately

3.Timeliness
System must deliver data in a timely manner.

4.Jitter

Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time.

1.6
2.BUILDING A COMPUTER NETWORK

2.1 NETWORK REQUIEREMNTS

2.2 NETWORK CRITERIA

2.3 CATEGORIES (or) TYPE OF

NETWORKS
2.4 SWITCHED NETWORK
2.BUILDING A NETWORK & TYPES

2.1 NETWORK REQUIEREMNTS

Connectivity

Cost-effective resource sharing

Support for Common services

Manageability
BUILDING A NETWORK & TYPES

2.1 NETWORK REQUIEREMNTS

Connectivity
A network must provide connectivity among a set of computers
Point-to-point - dedicated link between two devices/nodes
nodes in computer network are connected by link.
The link can be of two types:
Multipoint/multidrop - more than two nodes share a common physical link
i. Point-to-point
example is TV and its remote
ii. Multipoint/multidrop
control

Example – audio visual conferencing

Data Flow(simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex)
Physical Topology
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology
Network Topology

Nodes are geometrically arranged and connected to one another

 Mesh Topology
Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device
Number of links for n devices = n(n -
1) /2

It is a topology commonly used for wireless networks

 Problem:

A mesh network has 8 devices. Calculate total number of cable links

and IO ports needed.

Solution:

Number of devices= 8 Links =n(n-1)/2

=8(8-1)/2 =28
 Star Topology
Every device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller
called a hub.

Number of links for n devices = n

 Bus Topology

multiple devices are connected by means of connectors and drop line

One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.
 Ring Topology
each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection to its adjacent devices,
forming a ring type structure.
 Hybrid Topology

Hybrid topology is an integration of two or more different

topologies to form a resultant topology
 Routing
decide how to forward the message based on address

Switches and Routers use routing schemes which differ in their

delivery semantics

Difference methods of Routing

Unicastbetween one send and one receiver over the network.
Unicast - communication
Broadcast
Broadcast -delivers a message to all nodes in the network
Multicast
Multicast -delivers a message to a group
Anycast - single destination address has multiple
ofanycast
nodes routing
that have paths interest
expressed to two orinmore
endpoint destinations receiving the message
 BUILDING A NETWORK & TYPES

NETWORK REQUIEREMNTS
Connectivity
Cost-effective resource sharing
nodes in the network share the link by multiplexing
Support for Common services
Each channel in the network provides the set of services required by the application.
Example: file access
two channels are program
requiredlike the File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
1. Request/reply channelsused by the file transfer and digital library
2. Message stream channels. Manageability
applications.
Used by both the video on demand and videoconferencing applications.
making changes as the network grows to carry more traffic or reach more
users and troubleshooting.
Distributed Processing – task is divided into multiple computers

2.2 NETWORK CRITERIA

Performance – measured in many ways Transit Time

Response
Throughput– is––the
Time
Delay
amounttheof
Elapsed time
amount
one way
oftrip
Reliability reliability is time required
between ofrequest
data moveda packet
measured by forand
a message
response
successfully
crossing a
accuracy,
Security include to travel
time
fromfrom
one
network.
failure rate,
protecting one toplace
another
to
the time
dataitfrom another in a
takesunauthorized
a given time
link to recover
access and period.
fromdamage.
failure. measured in
bits per
 2.3 CATEGORIES (or) TYPE OF NETWORKS

Classification of Network

Metropolitan Wide Area

Local Area
Area
Network(LAN) Network(WAN)
Network(MAN)

Personal Area House Area Campus Area Point to Point

Switched WAN
Network(PAN) Network(HAN) Network(CAN) WAN
 Local Area Network(LAN)

Network that connects Example: Computer

computers and devices in Laboratory, Office Building or
a limited geographical closely positioned group of
area buildings.
 Local Area
Network(LAN)

Personal Area House Area

Network(PAN) Network(HAN)

connects multiple devices Residential LAN used for

for the use of a single user communication between
digital devices in home
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

High speed Network that Example: City or Town and

connects LAN in a handles bulk of
Metropolitan area communication activity
across that region
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Campus Area
Network that links the
variety of campus
Network(CAN)
buildings
 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Wide Area Network is when computers or devices are connected

together over a large geographical area. Eg: internet and satellite
links.
 Wide Area
Network(WAN)

Point to Point
WAN Switched WAN

Network that connects Network that connects two

two communicating or more connecting devices
devices through a through a transmission
transmission media media

1.27
 Internetwork (or) internet

two or more networks are connected makes an internetwork or internet

1.28
 2.4 SWITCHED NETWORK
A switched network is
made up of series of Types of switched
interconnected nodes network
called switches.

Circuit switched Packet switched

Network Network
dedicated channel has to not required to establish
be established before the the connection initially.
call is made between
users.
 3. NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Network Architecture is the general blueprints that guide the design

and implementation of networks

Network
Architecture

OSI Model TCP/IP Model or Internet

(Open System Interconnection) Architecture
(Transmission Control Protocol and
Internet Protocol.)
Reference tool for understanding
data communications between any It is the network model used in the
two networked systems. current Internet architecture.
It divides the communications It divides the communications
processes into 7 layers. processes into 4 layers.
 3.1.LAYERING AND PROTOCOLS

PROTOCOLS

Protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication

Key elements of a protocol

1.syntax 2.semantics 3.Timing

Structure or format of Meaning of each section Refer two characteristics :

data of bits 1.When data to be sent
2.How fast data can be sent
 Each protocol provides two different interfaces.

1. Service Interface 2. Peer Interface

Protocol communicates with protocol communicates with the

the layers above and below. same protocol on another system

1.32
 PROTOCOL GRAPH

e.g. RRP and MSP are two

graph in which nodes of the graph
alternatives for process-to-
correspond to protocols, and the
process channels that depend
edges represent a depends-on
on HHP for providing a host-to-
relation.
host connectivity service.
Host 1 Host 2

Digital
RRP - Request/Reply Protocol
File Digital Video File Video
library library application
application application application application application MSP - Message Stream Protocol
HHP – Host-to-Host Protocol

RRP MSP RRP MSP

HHP HHP
1.34
3.2 OSI ARCHITECTURE OR 7 LAYER
ARCHITECTURE
What is OSI model? Open Systems Interconnection

the OSI model is a tool used by IT

professionals to actually model or trace
the actual flow of how data transfers in
networks

What is it composed of? The OSI Model breaks down this data
transfer/communication procedure into
different components (called layers) Why layers?

Those components follow

a proper order of
execution

1.35
 The purpose of the OSI reference model is to guide
Why OSI Model? vendors and developers so the digital communication
products and software programs they create will
interoperate, and to facilitate clear comparisons among
communications tools.

Provide user interface to send or

receive
Encrypt,data
format and compress
data for transmission
Initiate and terminate session
with remote system
Break data stream in smaller
segments and provide reliable or
Provide logical addressing
unreliable delivery
Prepare data for transmission
Move data between devices
1.37
 Layers Mnemonics
Mnemonics

Application All
Away

Presentation People
Pizza

Session Seem
Sausage

To
Throw Transport

Not Network Need

Do Data Link Data

Please Physical Processing

Merits of OSI reference model
It is a layered framework for the design of network
systems.

It is easy to add multiple network models in a proper way.

It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers.

Demerits of OSI reference model

It is very complex to understand and manage.

Less privacy and easy to access.

Due to the complexity of OSI model, the first implementations were pretty heavy and slow.
3.3 INTERNET PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE (OR) TCP/IP
PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

What is TCP/IP model? Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol
TCP / IP model is a four layered architecture which provides
end to end communication, specifying how data should be
formed in packets, addressed, transmitted, routed and
received.
 File Hyper TextNetwork Trivial File
Transfer Transfer Virtual transfer
Protocol Protocol Terminal Protocol

Transmission User
Control Datagram
Protocol Protocol

Internet
Procol

Group of
stations

1.41
Merits of TCP/IP model
It operated independently.

It is scalable & Client/server architecture

Can be used to establish a connection between two computers .

Demerits of TCP/IP model

In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.

Replacing protocol is not easy

It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols

1.43
Sl No TCP/IP model OSI Model

1 Defined after the advent of Internet. Defined before advent of internet.

2 Service interface and protocols were Service interface and protocols are
not clearly distinguished. clearly distinguished.
3 TCP/IP supports Internet working Internetworking not supported

4 Loosely layered & Protocol Strict layering &

Dependant standard Protocol independent standard
5 More Credible &TCP reliably delivers Less Credible &All packets are
packets, IP does not reliably deliver reliably delivered
packets

1.44
5.PHYSICAL LAYER

The physical layer is the lowest or the first layer in the OSI

Physical layer truly justifies its name because it's actually physical in nature
and tangible as well.

Physical layer truly justifies its name because it's actually physical in nature
and tangible as well.

For example:

The network cable is a part of the physical layer, The female adapter of
NIC or the network card of a computer is a part of the physical layer.

1.45
1.46
5.LINK LAYER SERVICES

Specific functions of Data link layer

Services provided to/from

Unacknowledged
acknowledged
acknowledged
the network
connectionless
connectionless
connectionservice
service
layer
oriented service

Framing

Flow
control
Error control

1.47
5.DATA LINK LAYER SERVICES

FRAMING

In networking, a frame is a unit of data.

A frame works to help identify data packets used in networking and

telecommunications structures.

Frames also help to determine how data receivers interpret a stream of

data from a source.

1.48
Three approaches to find frames

1.Byte-Oriented Protocols (BISYNC, PPP, DDCMP)

2.Bit-Oriented Protocols (HDLC)

3.Clock-Based Framing (SONET)

1.49
 1.Byte-Oriented Protocols

communication protocol wherein full bytes are utilized as control codes

BISYNC PPP DDCMP

Point-to-Point Protocol Digital Data
Communication Message
Binary Synchronous Communication automatically
control and
protocol detects the error and
manage the data transfer
Protocol
retransmits the message when error occurs
sentinel characters to indicate where frames start and end
Class specifies the type of message
(data,control,maintenance)
Flag field Address
has used andfor 1500detecting
bytes errors
01111110 Controldemultiplexing
fields
synchronization start of text End cyclic
start of header of textredundancy check
usually contain
default values
FF(broadcast
Special sentinel
address) and 03
 Problems in Byte oriented Protocol
character stuffing-sender stuffs an extra DLE into the
data stream just before each occurrence of an ‘DLE’ in
the data stream
BISYNC PPP DDCMP
problem with the sentinel approach

ETX character might appear in the data portion of the frame

BISYNC overcomes this problem by character stuffing.

1.51
2.Bit-Oriented Protocols
Bit oriented protocols views frames as a collection of bits

HDLC

High Level Data link Control

Bit oriented protocol used on both point to point link and multipoint link

0111110

Mostly flag is a special 8-bit pattern “01111110” used to define

the beginning and the end of the frame
Problem in Bit oriented Protocol

The Pattern “01111110” could be found inside a Frame which will destruct inner
structure of the frame.

To overcome this problem, Bit stuffing is used in which sender will insert 0 after
occurrence of 5 consecutive 1s

1.53
 Types of HDLC Frames

HDLC

U- Frame I- Frame S- Frame

(Unnumbered) (Information) (Supervisory)

These frames are These frames carry These frames are

used in Link setup actual information used only to
and Disconnection. transport control
information
3.Clock-Based Framing (SONET)

A third approach to framing is Synchronous Optical Network (SONET).

Synchronous Optical Network Standard is used for long distance transmission of data over
optical network.

Intended to multiplex many digital data streams over long-distance, high-bandwidth optical
fiber; avoiding the clock synchronization problems.
Each frame has a fixed length of 810 bytes, organized as a block of 9 rows of 90 bytes each,
with no bit/byte stuffing.

The first 3 bytes of a row are overhead (header).

1.56
By interleaving bytes of lower-speed links, SONET multiplexes sub frames into larger
frames for higher-speed links.

Synchronous
Transport
Signal

1.57
LINK LAYER SERVICES

FLOW CONTROL
Flow control is a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data that the sender can send

Flow Control
Protocol

Noisy channel
Noiseless Channel Noisy Channel
other wise called
ARQ(Automatic
Repeat Request)
Sliding
simplest Stop and wait Stop and wait
Window

Go back N Selective
ARQ Repeat ARQ
STOP AND WAIT ARQ

The simplest ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) is stop and wait algorithm.

The idea of stop and wait is straightforward.

After transmitting one frame, the sender waits for an acknowledgement before transmitting the
next frame.

Sender keeps a copy of the last frame until it receives an acknowledgement.

Features of stop and wait ARQ
1. Sender keeps a copy
of Last transmitted
frame until its ACK is
received
2.Both data frame and ACK
frame are alternately numbered
as 0 and 1 for identification of
frame and to avoid duplication
of frames 3.Sender maintains
a timer, if ack is not
received in time it
assumes frame is
lost.
4 cases of operation:

1.Normal Operation

2.Frame is Lost

3.Acknowledgement(ACK) is Lost

4.ACK is delayed
 1.Normal Operation

In normal flow sender sends the frame 0 and receiver sends ack1 for the next frame.
 2.Frame is Lost

The sender sends the frame 1 but the frame is lost. The sender waits for an ACK upto the time
out period.

If the time period expires it retransmit the frame again.

3.Acknowledgement(ACK) is Lost

The sender doesn’t receive ACK for the

frame1 & the timer of the sender expires,
the sender retransmits frame 1.

Receiver has already received frame 1 and

expecting to receive frame 0 (R=0).

Therefore it discards the second copy of

frame 1.

1.64
4.ACK is delayed

The ACK can be delayed at the receiver or

due to some problem.

It is received after the timer for frame 0

has expired

Sender retransmitted a copy of frame 0.

However, R =1 means receiver expects to
see frame 1. Receiver discards the
duplicate frame 0.

1.65
Shortcomings of Stop and wait ARQ

1.Very inefficient

If the channel is too thick – large bandwidth

If the channel is too long – large Round trip delay

2.No pipelining – only one frame can be send at a time

 pipelining is a technique in
which multiple frames are send
without waiting for the
Sliding Window Protocol corresponding responses.
Pipelining reduces waiting time
of a process
To improve the efficiency of transmission Pipelining technique is used .

Multiple frames are sent by sender at the time without expecting ACK.

The acknowledgement may be cumulative acknowledgement or independent

acknowledgement.
 Sliding
Window

Go back N Selective
ARQ Repeat ARQ

retransmits all the frames retransmits only that frame

that lie after the frame which is damaged or lost
which is damaged or lost

1.68
Sequence Number

Frames from a sender are numbered

sequentially.
The sequence numbers range from 0 to 2 m– 1.

m is number of bits used to represent the sequence number

If m =3

Sequence numbers are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, …..

 Go back N ARQ protocol can send Multiple
frames at a time without waiting for an
Go Back N ARQ acknowledgement

Sender window size = 2m − 1 If m =3, sender window size =7

window size (2m − 1) should be less than the

sequence number ( 0 to 2m − 1)
Go Back N ARQ

Receiver window size = 1

In the Go-Back-N ARQ, But receiver’s variable is still R.
sender’s control variables are S,
SF, SL

R is the sequence number of the

SF is theS-sequence
sequence SLnumber
isnumber ofofthe
the sequence first
latest
number excepted
sent of the last frame
frame inframe
the slide window
frame in the slide window

Slide window size is W W=SL-SF+1=2m-1

 2 cases of operation:

1.Normal Operation 2. Damaged frame or Lost frame

Disadvantage: Resend N frames when just one frame is damaged

1.73
 Selective Repeat ARQ protocol retransmits
only the damaged frames instead of sending
Selective Repeat multiple frames.
ARQ
Sender window size =Receiver Window size = 2m − 1

RF is the sequence
RL is the number
sequenceofnumber
the firstof the last
frame in the slide
frame inwindow
the slide window
3 cases of operation:

1.Normal Operation

2. Lost frame

3. ACK is Lost
1.Normal Operation
2. Lost frame
3. ACK is Lost
Piggybacking A method to combine a data frame with ACK. & saves
Bandwidth.