OPTICAL

NETWORKS
 Topics
1.Network Concepts
2.SDH/ SONET*
3.High Speed Lightwave links
 Network Concepts

1. Network Terminology

2. Network Categories

3. Network Layers

4. Optical Layer
 Network Terminology
Stations: Collections of devices that users employ to communicate are called
stations. These may be computers, terminals, telephones, or other equipment
for communicating. Stations are also referred to as data terminal
equipment (DTE) in the networking world.

Networks: To establish connections between these stations, one deploys

transmission paths running between them to form a collection of
interconnected stations called a network.

Node: Within this network, a node is a point where one or more communication
lines terminate or where stations are connected.

Trunk: The term trunk normally refers to a transmission line that runs
between nodes or networks and that supports large traffic loads.
Topology: The topology is the logical manner in which nodes are
linked together by information transmission channels to form a network.

Switching and routing: The transfer of information from source to

destination through a series of intermediate nodes is called switching, and the
selection of a suitable path through a network is referred to as routing.

Router: When two networks that use different information-exchange rules

(protocols) are interconnected, a device called a router is used at the
interconnection point to translate the control information from one
protocol to another.
Network Terminology

Definitions of various elements of a network.

 Enterprise and Public Networks

Enterprise Network: A private organization (for example, a company, a

government entity, a medical facility, a university ) owns and operates a network.

Public Network: Networks that are owned by the telecommunications

carriers provide services such as leased lines or real time telephone
connections to the genera public.

Central office: A communication switching facility in a public network is

calleda central office (CO) or a point of presence (POP).
Backbone network: The term backbone describes a high-capacity
network that connects multiple LAN, MAN, or WAN segments. Thus, a
backbone handles internetwork traffic.

Long-haul network: A long-haul network interconnects various

cities or geographical regions and spans hundreds to thousands of
kilometers between central offices.

Passive Optical Network: Optical distribution networks that do not

require any active optoelectronic components in the access region offer a
number of operating advantages over the other media. This implementation is
called passive optical networks (PON) and is the basis for the fiber to the
premises networks.
 Links > 50 Km Links < 50 Km (e.g, a PON) Links < 1 Km
Links ≤ 20 Km

Definitions of some terms used in describing different segments of a public network.

Architecture of a typical passive optical network.
 Networks Layers

Physical Layer: Refers to a physical transmission medium, such as a wire or

an optical fiber, that can handle a certain amount of bandwidth. responsible for
actual transmission of bits across a fiber or wire.

Data link layer: It establishes, maintain, and release links that directly
connect two nodes. Its functions include framing ,multiplexing, and demultiplexing
of data. Dominant protocols are point-to-point protocol (PPP) and the highlevel data
link control (HDLC) protocol.

Network layer: Its function is to deliver packets from source to

destination across multiple network links. Currently the dominant network layer
protocol is the Internet Protocol (IP).

Transport layer: is responsible for reliably delivering the complete

message from the source to the destination to satisfy a quality of service (QoS)
requested by the upper layer. Dominant protocols TCP and UDP
General structure and functions of the seven-layer OSI reference model.
 Optical Layer

The physical layer provides a physical connection between two nodes,

the optical layer provides lightpath services over that link.

A lightpath is an end-to-end optical connection that may go through one or

more intermediate nodes. For example, in an eight-channel WDM link there are
eight lightpaths, which may go over a single physical line.

Optical layer processes: wavelength multiplexing, adding and

dropping of wavelengths, and support of optical cross-connects or
wavelength switching.

Networks which have these optical layer functions are referred to as

wavelength-routed networks.
 OPTICAL
NETWORKS
NETWORK HEIRARCHY
 SDH / SONET
1. Introduction to SDH/ SONET
• Applications / advantages/ disadvantages
2. Physical Configuration
3. SONET/ SDH Layers
4. Transmission Formats and Speed
5. Optical Interfaces Specifications
6. SONET/ SDH Rings
7. SONET/SDH Networks
 Introduction to SDH / SONET
ITU-T standards is called the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
ANSI standards is called the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET)

Three Important concerns in designing SONET/ SDH*

1. It is a Synchronous network.
• A single clock is used to handle the timing of transmission and
equipment across the entire network.
• Network wise synchronization adds a level of predictability to the
system.
• This predictability , coupled with powerful frame design, enables
individual channels to be multiplexed, thereby improving speed
and reducing cost.
2. Standardization.
• SDH/SONET contains recommendations for the standardization of
fiber optic transmission system equipment sold by different
manufacturers.
 Introduction to SDH / SONET

3. Universal Connectivity.
• SDH/SONET physical specification and frame design include
mechanism that allow it to carry signals from incompatible
tributary systems. This flexibility gives SONET/ SDH a reputation
for universal connectivity.

Applications:
1. Carrier for ISDN and B-ISDN.
2. Carrier for ATM cells.
3. Can support bandwidth on demand.
4. Can be used as the backbone or totally replace other
networking protocols such as SMDS or FDDI.
5. Can replace PDH system,E1, E3 lines.
 Introduction to SDH / SONET
Advantages of SDH

Flexible New generation of multiplexers with direct

access to every single low-speed tributary
(e.g. 2 Mbit/s/1.5 Mbit/s), sophisticated signal
protection mechanisms

Cost effective Integration of multiplex, cross-connect and

line terminal functions as part of a software-
controlled network element

Manageable Adequate and standardized signal overhead capacity

for remote operation, administration and
maintenance (OAM)

Standardized Standardized line signal as a uniform interface

for all manufacturers (multi-vendor policy)

International Uniform multiplexing principle for both existing

hierarchies (USA and Europe)
Disdvantages of SDH

Abundant low bandwidth utilization ratio,

Overheads bits contradiction between efficiency and
reliability

Pointer Mechanism of pointer adjustment is

adjustment complex, it can cause pointer
adjustment jitters

Software based Large-scale application of software

makes SDH system vulnerable to
viruses or mistakes.
 Physical Configuration*

Add/drop
multiplexer

Regenerator Regenerator
MUX
MUX

Section Section Section Section

Line Line

Path
Multiplexer/ Demultiplexer: Multiplexer marks the beginning and end
points of a SDH link. They provide interface between a tributary network and SDH
and either multiplex signals from multiple sources into an STM signal or demultiplex
as STM signal into different destination Signals.

Regenerator: Regenerator extend the length of the links, it takes optical

signal and regenerates. SDH regenerator replaces some of the existing overhead
information with new information. These devices function at the data link layer.

Add/ drop multiplexer: It can add signals coming from different sources
into a given path or remove a desired signal from a path and redirect it without
demultiplexing the entire signal. Instead of relying on timing and bit position
add/drop multiplexer use header information such as addresses and pointers to
identify the individual steams.
Section: It is the optical link connecting two neighbor devices:
• Multiplexer to Multiplexer
• Multiplexer to Regenerator
• Regenerator to Regenerator

Line: It is the portion of the network between two multiplexers:

• STM Multiplexer to add/drop multiplexer
• Two add/drop multiplexers
• Two STM multiplexers

Paths: It is the end to end portion of the network between two STM
multiplexers.

In a simple SDH of two multiplexers linked directly to each other, the

section, line, and path are the same.
 SONET/SDH Layers

Path layer

Line layer

Section layer
Data link

Photonic layer
Physical
 SONET/SDH Layers

Photonic Layer: Corresponds to the physical layer of the OSI model. It

includes physical specifications for the optical fiber channel, the sensitivity of the
receiver, multiplexing functions, and so on. It uses NRZ encoding.

Section Layer: It is responsible for the movement of a signal across a

physical section. It handles framing, scrambling and error control. Section layer
overhead is added to the frame at this layer.

Line Layer: It is responsible for the movement of a signal across a

physical line. Line overhead (Pointers, protection bytes, parity bytes etc) is
added to the frame at this layers. STM multiplexer and add/drop multiplexers
provide line layer functions.

Path Layer: It is responsible for the movement of a signal from its optical
source to its optical destination. At the optical source, the signal is changed
from an electronic form into an optical form, multiplexed with other signals, and
encapsulated in a frame. Path layer overhead is added at this layer. STM
multiplexer provide path layer functions.
 Device Layer Relationship

Path Path
Line Line Line
Section Section Section Section Section
Photonic Photonic Photonic Photonic Photonic

Regenerator Regenerator
MUX
MUX

Add/drop
multiplexer
 Transmission Formats and speeds
Commonly Used SONET and SDH Transmission Rates

QUIZ:
No of E1s in STM-1,STM-4,STM-16 and STM-64 ?
 Transmission Formats and speeds

Line rate calculation

270
Total Frame Capacity: 270 X 9 = 2430 Bytes
Total Number of Bits = 2430 X 8 = 19440 Bits
Time Period of One Frame = 125 microseconds
Bits/Second = 19440/125 X 10 -6 = 155.52 Mbits/Sec
= STM-1
4X STM-1 = STM-4
4XSTM-4 = STM-16
 Transmission Formats and seeds

SDH components
 SDH Frame is made of the following

– SDH payload

– Pointer

Overhead is fixed and is like a

– Path Over head
Header. It contains all

– Section Overhead information including

» Multiplex section overhead Monitoring,O&M functions etc.
» Regenerator section overhead
 Transmission Formats and speeds
SDH Frame

2 34 140 SDH

270 x N Columns

1 Byte 261 Bytes

RSOH
Pointer
POH

9 Rows Payload
MSOH
Actual Traffic

STM-1, STM-4, STM-16, STM-64, STM-256

 Optical Interfaces Specification

SONET and SDH specifications provide details of:

1. Optical source characteristics
2. Receiver sensitivity,
3. Transmission distances for various types of fibers.

Transmission Distances and Their SONET and SDH Designations, Where x Denotes the
STM-x Level
The optical fibers specified in ITU-T G.957 fall into the following three
categories and operational windows:

1. Graded-index multimode in the 1310-nm window.

2. Conventional nondispersion-shifted single-mode in the 1310- and
1550-nm windows
3. Dispersion-shifted single-mode in the 1550-nm window

Table shows the wavelength and attenuation ranges specified in these

fibers for transmission distances up to 80 km.

Wavelength Ranges and Attenuation for Transmission Distances up to 80km

Source Output, Attenuation, and Receiver Ranges for Various Rates and
Distances up to 80 km (ITU-T G.957)
 SONET/ SDH Rings
• SONET and SDH are configured as either ring or mesh architecture.
• So Loop diversity is achieved in case of link or equipment failure.
• SONET/SDH rings are commonly called self-healing rings. Means
automatic switching to standby link on failure or degradation of the
link.
Three main features of SONET/SDH rings:
1. There can be either two or four fibers running between the nodes on a
ring.
2. Operating signal signals can travel either clockwise only (unidirectional
ring) or in both directions around the ring (which is called bidirectional
ring).
3. Protection switching can be performed either via line-switching or a path
switching scheme.
• Line switching moves all signal channels of an entire STM-N
channel to a protection fiber.
• Path switching can move individual payload channels within a
STM-N channel to another path.
 SONET/ SDH Rings

Following two architectures have become popular for SONET and

SDH Networks:

1. Two fibers, unidirectional, path-switched ring (two-

fiber UPSR)
2. Two fiber or four fiber, bidirectional, line switched
ring( two fiber or four fiber BLSR)\

(They are also referred to as unidirectional or

bidirectional self healing ring , USHRs or BSHRs)
 SONET /SDH Networks
SONET/SDH equipment allows the configuration of a variety of network
architectures, as shown in next slide. For example
• Point-to-point links
• Linear chains
• UPSRs
• BLSRs
• Interconnected rings

Each of the individual rings has its own failure recovery mechanisms and
SONET/SDH network management procedures.

An important SONET/SDH network element is the add/drop multiplexer

(ADM). This piece of equipment is a fully synchronous, byte-oriented
multiplexer that is used to add and drop subchannels within an OC-N signal.

The SONET/SDH architectures also can be implemented with multiple

wavelengths. For example, Fig in next slide, will show a dense WDM
deployment on an OC-192 trunk ring for n wavelengths
 OPTICAL
NETWORKS
LIGHTWAVE LINKS
 High Speed Lightwave Links

1.Links operating at 10 Gb/s

2.Links operating at 40 Gb/s

3.Links operating at 160 Gb/s

 High Speed Lightwave Links
A challenge to creating efficient and reliable optical networks for ever
growing demand of bandwidth is the:
Development of high speed optical fiber
transceivers

• Small form factor pluggable (SFP) transceiver can be used for DWDM.
• Such devices have hot-pluggable capability.
• Such transceivers operating at 2.5 Gb/s for DWDM applications with 100
GHz wavelength spacing are in wide use.

• Laser diodes can be modulated dirrectly up to 2.5 Gb/s (in some cases
up to 10 Gb/s), but usually need an external modulator beyond that
point.
• Therefore new challenges emerge for transceivers operating at higher
rates, such as 10, 40, and 160 Gb/s
 Links Operating at 10 Gb/s
10-Gb/s Optical fiber transmission system installed worldwide are:
1. Fibre channel connections for storage area network.
2. 10- gigabit Ethernet lines for local area and metro networks.
3. SONET/SDH OC192/STM64 terrestrial and undersea long haul lines .

• Wide selection of industry standardized transceiver packages are available for

these applications.
• Several multimode fibers with different bandwidth grades exists for 10 Gb/s.

Multimode fiber classification and their use with 1 and 10 Gb/s Ehernet
Fiber class BW@850nm BW@1300nm Max distance Max distance Max distance
and size (MHz-Km) (MHz-Km) for 1 Gb/s for 1 Gb/s for 10 Gb/s
@850 nm @1300 nm @850 nm

OM1 62.5/125 200 500 300 m 550 m 33m

OM2 50/125 500 800 750 m 200 m 82 m

OM3 50/125 2000 500 950 m 600 m 300 m

Extended reach 3500 500 1040 m 600 m 550 m

(ER)
 Links Operating at 10 Gb/s
For short-reach 10-Gb/s network: All segment of the network should use the
same grade of multimode fiber.
But in some cases segment can contain spliced OM2 and OM3 fibers.

For OM2 and OM3 fibers spliced together: then bandwidths of the fibers will
determine the resulting effective maximum link length.
Lmax =LOM2 (BW OM3/ BW OM2) + LOM3 (OM2 and OM3 having same geometric parameters)

Max link length calculated by this equation must be less than the
achievable link length if only OM3 fiber is used.

Q: An engineer wants to create a link consisting of 40 m of OM2 fiber that

has a 500 MHz bandwidth and 100 m of OM3 fiber that has a 2000 MHz
bandwidth. Calculate the maximum link length ?
Lmax=?
Where LOM2= 40 m LOM3= 100 m
BWOM3=2000 MHz BWOM2= 500 MHz
 Links Operating at 10 Gb/s

For a acces network application ranging from 7 to 20 km:

The 10-GbE specificaton calls Long Reach (LR).
 The link needs to use InGaAsP bassed distributed feedback (DFB) lasers.
 These links operate near the 1310 nm dispersion minimum of G.652 single
mode fibers and the light sources can be modulated directly.

For metro network application ranging from 40 to 80 km

The 10-GbE specification calls extended reach (ER).
 The link needs to use externally modulated distributed feedback (DFB)
lasers operating at 1550 nm over single mode fibers.

A number of vendors offer a variety of transceiver packages for both LR and ER

applications. Three of Several configurations include:
1. 300-pin 2. XFP 3.SFP
 Links Operating at 40 Gb/s
New Challenges at 40 Gb/s data rate, in terms of:
1. Transceiver response characteristics
2. Chromatic dispersion control
3. Polarization mode dispersion compensation

Compared to 10-Gb/s system, Link operating at 40 Gb/s and using

conventional OOK modulation format, is:
1. sixteen times more sensitive to chromatic dispersion.
2. Four times more sensitive to polarization mode dispersion
3. Optical signal to noise ratio (OSNR) which is at least 6 dB higer is
required to reach an equivalent bit error rate (BER)

Therefore alternate modulation scheme are considered.

One method is Binary differential phase shift keying or simply DPSK.
The most widely accept format has been RZ-DPSK for which transceiver
modules that can interface to SONET-678/SDH -256 equipment are
available.
 OTDM Links Operating at 160 Gb/s

160 Gb/s over a single wavelength using G.652 single

mode fiber are tested.
These test link used the concept of OPTICAL TIME
DIVISION MULTIPLEXING (OTDM) to form 160 Gb/s data
stream, since electronic devices that are needed for
carrying out signal processing at these rates were not
available.

One option is to use bit-interleaved OTDM.

Time multiplexed media rate can be up to 160 Gb/s

Several field trials have demonstrated the feasibility of long haul 160
Gb/s transmission systems.
Interesting point to note about these 160 Gb/s experiments is that
good performance was obtained using installed standard G.652
single mode fiber.
 Basic concept of point to point transmission using bit interveaved
optical TDM

Four 10 Gb/s
Data sources:
A B C D A B C D
10 Gb/s Pulse stream A B C D Clock
recovery

10 GHz Clock
Modulator
Signal stream Receiver A

Demultiplexer
Modulator EDFA EDFA
10 GHz Receiver B
Optical
Pulse Receiver C
Modulator Postamplifier Preamplifier
Source
Optical Receiver D
splitter Modulator
Fiber
delay
lines

Example of an ultra-fast point to point transmission system using optical

TDM.
 OTDM Links Operating at 160 Gb/s
GERMANY:
Researchers achieved repeaterless error free transmission.
1 x 170 Gb/s signals over 185 Km
8 x 170 Gb/s signals (eight WDM signals) over 140 Km
On Single mode fiber using RZ-DPSK modulation.
170 Gb/s signal was created by time interleaving four channels operation at 42.7 Gb/s

JAPAN:
To cope with transmission impairments from CD and PMD.
Researchers investigated the use of 2-bit/symbol encoding techniques such as differential quadrature
phase shift keying (DQPSK) and simultaneous amplitude shift keying (ASK) and DPSK.
160 Gb/s signal was composed of eight 20 Gb/s channels
Relatively stable BER charactersitics were obtained after transmission over 200 Km of installed G.652
single mode fiver.

UNITED KINGDOM:
160 Gb/s experiment carried out by the researchers.
The impact of chromatic and polarization mode dispersion were examined on 275 and 550 km links of
installed SSMF.
The 160 Gb/s signal was created by time interleaving sixteen channels operating at 10 Gb/s each.
Experiments showed excellent operation of clock recovery, BER, and functions of dropping and adding
wavelength channels.