EBEP 3021 Power Electronics

Chapter 1: Introduction to Power Electronics

Definition of Power Electronics
To convert, i.e to process and control the flow of electric power by supplying voltages and currents in a
form that is optimally suited for user loads.
Power Electronics (PE) Systems
• To convert electrical energy from one form to another, i.e. from the source to load with:
– highest efficiency
– highest availability
– highest reliability
– lowest cost
– smallest size
– least weight.
• Static applications
 involves non-rotating or moving mechanical components.
 Examples: • DC Power supply, Un-interruptible power supply, Power generation and transmission
(HVDC), Electroplating, Welding, Heating, Cooling, Electronic ballast
• Drive applications
 intimately contains moving or rotating components such as motors.
 Examples: • Electric trains, Electric vehicles, Airconditioning System, Pumps, Compressor, Conveyer
Belt (Factory automation).
Application examples
Power Conversion concept: example
Supply from TNB:
50Hz, 240V RMS
(340V peak). Customer
need DC voltage for
welding purpose, say.

We can use simple half-

wave rectifier. A fixed DC
voltage is now obtained.
TNB sine-wave This is a simple PE system.
supply gives zero
DC component!
Conversion Concept
• How if customer wants variable DC voltage? More complex circuit using SCR is
required.
By controlling the firing angle,
α,the output DC voltage (after
conversion) can be varied..
Obviously this needs a
complicated electronic system
to set the firing current pulses
for the SCR.
Power Electronics Converters
Current issues
1. Energy scenario
 Need to reduce dependence on fossil fuel
– coal, natural gas, oil, and nuclear power resource Depletion of these sources is expected.
 Tap renewable energy resources: – solar, wind, fuel-cell, ocean-wave
 Energy saving by PE applications. Examples: – Variable speed compressor air-conditioning
system: 30% savings compared to thermostat-controlled system. – Lighting using electronics
ballast boost efficiency of fluorescent lamp by 20%.
2. Environment issues
 Nuclear safety. – Nuclear plants remain radioactive for thousands of years.
 Burning of fossil fuel – emits gases such as CO2 , CO (oil burning), SO2 , NOX (coal burning)
etc. – Creates global warming (green house effect), acid rain and urban pollution from smokes
 Possible Solutions by application of PE. Examples: – Renewable energy resources. –
Centralization of power stations to remote non-urban area. (mitigation). – Electric vehicles.
PE growth
• PE rapid growth due to:
 Advances in power (semiconductor) switches
 Advances in microelectronics (DSP, VLSI, microprocessor/microcontroller, ASIC)
 New ideas in control algorithms
 Demand for new applications
• PE is an interdisciplinary field:
 Digital/analogue electronics
 Power and energy
 Microelectronics
 Control system
 Computer, simulation and software
 Solid-state physics and devices
 Packaging
 Heat transfer
Power semiconductor devices (Power switches)

 Power switches: work-horses of PE systems. •

 Operates in two states: – Fully on. i.e. switch
closed. – Conducting state – Fully off , i.e. switch
opened. – Blocking state
 Power switch never operates in linear mode
 Can be categorised into three groups:
– Uncontrolled: Diode
– Semi-controlled: Thyristor (SCR).
– Fully controlled: Power transistors: e.g. BJT,
MOSFET, IGBT, GTO, IGCT
Power Diode

• When diode is forward biased,

it conducts current with a small
forward voltage (Vf ) across it
(0.2-3V)
• When reversed (or blocking
state), a negligibly small
leakage current (uA to mA)
flows until the reverse
breakdown occurs.
• Diode should not be operated at
reverse voltage greater than Vr
Reverse Recovery
 When a diode is switched quickly from
forward to reverse bias, it continues to
conduct due to the minority carriers
which remains in the p-n junction.
 The minority carriers require finite time,
i.e, t rr (reverse recovery time) to
recombine with opposite charge and
neutralise.
 Effects of reverse recovery are increase
in switching losses, increase in voltage
rating, over-voltage (spikes) in inductive
loads
Types of Power Diodes
• Line frequency (general purpose):
– On state voltage: very low (below 1V)
– Large t rr (about 25us) (very slow response)
– Very high current ratings (up to 5kA)
– Very high voltage ratings(5kV)
– Used in line-frequency (50/60Hz) applications such as rectifiers
• Fast recovery
– Very low t rr (<1us)
– Power levels at several hundred volts and several hundred amps
– Normally used in high frequency circuits
• Schottky
– Very low forward voltage drop (typical 0.3V)
– Limited blocking voltage (50-100V)
– Used in low voltage, high current application such as switched mode power supplies.
Thyristor (SCR)
• If the forward breakover voltage (Vbo ) is
exceeded, the SCR “self-triggers” into the
conducting state.
• The presence of gate current will reduce
Vbo .
• “Normal” conditions for thyristors to turn
on: – the device is in forward blocking
state (i.e Vak is positive) – a positive gate
current (I g ) is applied at the gate
• Once conducting, the anode current is
latched. Vak collapses to normal forward
volt-drop, typically 1.5-3V.
• In reverse -biased mode, the SCR
behaves like a diode.
Thyristor Conduction
• Thyristor cannot be turned off by
applying negative gate current.
• It can only be turned off if I a
goes negative (reverse) – This
happens when negative portion
of the of sine-wave occurs
(natural commutation)
• Another method of turning off is
known as “forced
commutation” , – The anode
current is “diverted” to another
circuitry.
Types of thyristors
• Phase controlled
– rectifying line frequency voltage and current for ac and dc motor drives
– large voltage (up to 7kV) and current (up to 4kA) capability
– low on-state voltage drop (1.5 to 3V)
• Inverter grade
– used in inverter and chopper
– Quite fast. Can be turned-on using “force commutation” method.
• Light activated
– Similar to phase controlled, but triggered by pulse of light.
– Normally very high power ratings
• TRIAC
– Dual polarity thyristors
Controllable switches (power transistors)
• Can be turned “ON”and “OFF” by relatively very small control signals.
• Operated in SATURATION and CUT-OFF modes only.
• No “linear region” operation is allowed due to excessive power loss.
• In general, power transistors do not operate in latched mode.
• Traditional devices: Bipolar junction transistors (BJT), Metal oxide silicon field effect
transistor ( MOSFET), Insulated gate bipolar transistors (IGBT), Gate turn-off
thyristors (GTO)
• Emerging (new) devices: Gate controlled thyristors (GCT)
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect Transistor (MOSFET)
MOSFET characteristics
• Basically low voltage device. High voltage device are available up to 600V but with
limited current.
• Can be paralleled quite easily for higher current capability.
• Internal (dynamic) resistance between drain and source during on state, RDS(ON), ,
limits the power handling capability of MOSFET.
• High losses especially for high voltage device due to RDS(ON) .
• Dominant in high frequency application (>100kHz).
• Biggest application is in switched-mode power supplies.
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
Gate turn-off thyristor (GTO)
Insulated Gate-Commutated Thyristor (IGCT)
Power Switches: Power Ratings
Isolation
Application examples
For each of the following application, choose the best power
switches and reason out why.
Tutorial 1
• An inverter for the light-rail train (LRT) locomotive operating from a DC supply of 750
V. The locomotive is rated at 150 kW. The induction motor is to run from standstill up
to 200 Hz, with power switches frequencies up to 10KHz.
• A switch-mode power supply (SMPS) for remote telecommunication equipment is to be
developed. The input voltage is obtained from a photovoltaic array that produces a
maximum output voltage of 100 V and a minimum current of 200 A. The switching
frequency should be higher than 100kHz.
• A HVDC transmission system transmitting power of 300 MW from one ac system to
another ac system both operating at 50 Hz, and the DC link voltage operating at 2.0 kV.
Power switch losses
• Why it is important to consider losses of power switches?
– to ensure that the system operates reliably under prescribed ambient conditions
– so that heat removal mechanism (e.g. heat sink, radiators, coolant) can be specified. losses in
switches affects the system efficiency
• Heat sinks and other heat removal systems are costly and bulky. Can be substantial cost
of the total system.
• If a power switch is not cooled to its specified junction temperature, the full power
capability of the switch cannot be realised. Derating of the power switch ratings may be
necessary.
• Main losses:
– forward conduction losses
– blocking state losses
– switching losses
Forward conduction loss

• Ideal switch:
 Zero voltage drop across it during turn-on (Von ).
 Although the forward current ( I on ) may be large, the losses on the switch is zero.
• Real switch:
 Exhibits forward conduction voltage (on state) (between 1-3V, depending on type of
switch) during turn on.
 Losses is measured by product of volt-drop across the device Von with the current, I
on , averaged over the period.
• Major loss at low frequency and DC
Blocking state loss
• During turn-off, the switch blocks large voltage.
• Ideally no current should flow through the switch.
• But for real switch a small amount of leakage current may flow.
• This creates turn-off or blocking state losses
• The leakage current during turn-off is normally very small, Hence the turn-off losses
are usually neglected.
Switching loss
• Ideal switch:
 During turn-on and turn off, ideal switch
requires zero transition time. Voltage and
current are switched instantaneously.
 Power loss due to switching is zero •
• Real switch:
 During switching transition, the voltage
requires time to fall and the current
requires time to rise.
 The switching losses is the product of
device voltage and current during
transition.
• Major loss at high frequency operation
Snubbers
Snubbers Cont’
• In general, snubbers are used for:
– turn-on: to minimise large overcurrents through the device at turn-on
– turn-off: to minimise large overvoltages across the device during turn-off.
– Stress reduction: to shape the device switching waveform such that the voltage and current
associated with the device are not high simultaneously.
• Switches and diodes requires snubbers.
• However, new generation of IGBT, MOSFET and IGCT do not require it.
Ideal vs. Practical power switch
Reference
• Lecture Notes Zainal Salam, UTM
• Rashid, M.H. (2013). Power Electronics: Circuits, Devices and Applications (4th
edition). Prentice Hall.
End