PME 111

Reservoir Rock and Fluid Properties

Department of Petroleum and Mining Engineering

Chittagong University of Engineering & Technology
Relative Permeability
Fundamental concepts of relative permeability

 In previous chapter we discussed about the permeability referred to absolute permeability

of a porous medium that was fully saturated with a single fluid phase.

 The experiments that Darcy conducted included 100% water-saturated sands, and later
developments of Darcy’s law that is commonly used in the petroleum industry extended it
to include a generalized case of the flow of any single-phase fluid, for example, oil or
water.

 However, petroleum reservoirs having such simple single-phase fluid systems seldom exist
because reservoir rocks are saturated with at least two immiscible fluid phases, for
example, the pore space is shared by gas and oil or oil and water or by gas, oil, and water.

 Therefore, it becomes necessary to further extend or modify Darcy’s law to include the
simultaneous fluid flow of two or more fluid phases present in a porous medium.
 This is achieved by including the concept of effective permeability of each fluid phase
instead of absolute permeability.

 The presence of more than one fluid phase in a porous medium obviously brings in their
individual saturations and their relationship with the effective permeabilities.

 Amyx et al. have stated that laboratory studies have established that effective permeability
is a function of prevailing fluid saturation, the wetting characteristics, and the geometry of
the pores.

 Therefore, it becomes necessary to specify the fluid saturation when defining the effective
permeability of a given fluid phase.

 Similar to absolute permeability, effective permeability is also denoted by k but with

subscripts g for gas, o for oil, and w for water, that is, k eg, keo, and kew, which are effective
permeabilities of gas, oil, and water, respectively, with e signifying effective.
 Given the many possible combinations of saturations for a single porous medium, laboratory data
are normally summarized and reported as relative permeability (denoted by k r) rather than
effective permeability.

 Thus, similar to effective permeabilities, the individual relative permeabilities can be specified as
krg, kro, and krw, respectively.

 Consequently, in a given porous medium containing any two mobile fluid phases, it is possible to
define any of the following two-phase relative permeabilities.

• Gas–oil

• Gas–water

• Oil–water

 However, in the case of a three-phase relative permeability, the flow is always characterized by
gas–oil–water relative permeabilities:
Mathematical expressions for relative permeability

 Relative permeabilities can either be reported as percentage or fraction (more common)

and are usually expressed by the ratio of effective permeability to absolute permeability.

 Where, kr is the relative permeability (dimensionless)

ke is the effective permeability (mD or D)
 This equation can also be written for specific fluid phases, gas, oil, and water, such that
Salient features of gas–oil and water–oil relative permeability curves

 Relative permeability data are typically reported or presented in the form of relative
permeability curves.

 Similar to the capillary pressure–saturation curves, the relative permeability–saturation

curves or plots also represent the relative permeability values in a certain fluid-phase
saturation that ranges typically between the irreducible wetting-phase saturation and in
almost all cases the residual oil saturation or the corresponding wetting-phase saturation

1 − Sor.

 As mentioned earlier, if the relative permeability–saturation data are for the gas–oil, gas–
water, or oil–water, collectively, the data are referred to as two-phase relative permeability
curves.

 This section studies their various important characteristics with the help of typical gas–oil
and oil–water relative permeability curves.
 To understand the characteristic features of the relative permeability curves, typical gas–oil
and oil–water relative permeability data, shown in following figures, are considered.

A typical gas–oil relative permeability curve. Saturation scale is composed of

irreducible water saturation.
 A typical oil–water relative permeability curve

 Relative permeability curves presented in Figures consist of the elements described in the
following sections.
1. END-POINT FLUID SATURATIONS

 Relative permeability data are usually plotted as relative permeability– saturation curves.

 The saturation on the x-axis typically ranges from the irreducible wetting-phase saturation
to the residual oil saturation.

 For gas–oil relative permeability, the starting saturation is referred to as total liquid-phase
saturation that consists of the irreducible water saturation, S wi, with the remainder as initial
oil saturation, totaling to 100% liquid saturation.

 As gas displacement is carried out, the total liquid-phase saturation begins to reduce, the
irreducible water saturation remains constant, while the oil saturation reduces.

 The gas and oil relative permeability curves end at residual oil saturation, basically
consisting of a summation of Swi and Sor, or normally referred to as SLir.

 The liquid-phase saturation changes that take place in gas–oil relative permeability curves
are summarized in Figure.
Saturation changes taking place in a gas–oil relative permeability curve
 For oil–water relative permeability curves, wetting-phase saturation on the x-axis (water in
most cases) begins with the irreducible water saturation, S wi (the remainder liquid being the
initial oil saturation).

 As water is injected into the core sample, it displaces the oil, increasing the saturation of
the former and decreasing the saturation of the latter respectively.

 The desaturation of oil continues until the residual oil saturation is achieved, also
expressed as 1 − Swterminal.

 So basically, the oil and water relative permeability curves begin at S wi and terminate at Sor.
Saturation changes taking place in an oil–water relative permeability curve.
2. BASE PERMEABILITIES

 Relative permeabilities can be expressed as any specified base permeability, that is, the
effective permeability divided by the absolute air or liquid permeability or usually the effective
oil permeability at irreducible water saturation.

 If the effective permeability at the irreducible water saturation is used, then the oil effective
permeability at irreducible water saturation is always employed for calculating the relative
permeability.

 However, careful understanding of which base permeability is used is needed. For example, if
the oil effective permeability at the oil saturation of 50% or water saturation of 50% is 100 mD
and if the base permeability is 110 and 120 mD at an irreducible water saturation of 20% and
100% water saturation (absolute), respectively, then the relative permeability could be either
100/110 or 100/120, which is obviously not the same.

 However, the important issue is to realize which base permeability has been used in
determining the relative permeability.
3. END-POINT PERMEABILITIES AND RELATIVE PERMEABILITY CURVES

 The gas–oil as well as oil–water relative permeability curves are basically confined within
two end points. These end points are referred to as end-point relative permeabilities and are
defined as follows.

 Gas–Oil Relative Permeability Curves:

 At 100% liquid saturation, the oil relative permeability, k ro, always equals 1 if the base

permeability used is the effective permeability to oil at S wi, or kro = 1.

 At this point, irrespective of the base permeability used, k rg is always equal to 0 because the
pore space is fully saturated by the liquid and there is no gas phase present.

 At the residual liquid-phase saturation, the oil relative permeability, k ro, always equals 0

because the liquid phase(s) is immobile (Swi + Sor).

 However, at this condition, gas saturation is at its maximum and only gas is flowing and thus
the gas relative permeability is at its maximum value.
 Oil–Water Relative Permeability Curves:

 At the initial or irreducible water saturation, the oil relative permeability, k ro, always equals

1 if the base permeability used is the effective permeability to oil at S wi, or kro = 1.

 At this point irrespective of the base permeability used, k rw is always equal to 0 because
water is immobile since it is at an irreducible saturation.

 At residual oil saturation, the oil relative permeability, k ro, always equals 0 because the oil

phase is immobile (Sor).

 However, at this saturation, water relative permeability is at its maximum value because
water is the only phase that is mobile and is at its maximum saturation.
4. DIRECTION OF THE RELATIVE PERMEABILITY CURVES

 The direction of a relative permeability curve with regard to saturation history is another
very important characteristic, that is, whether the curve is produced by a drainage process or
imbibition process, under the assumption that wettability of the rock sample is known prior.

 The drainage relative permeability curve applies to the process in which the wetting phase
is, or has been, decreasing in magnitude; the imbibition process assumes the wetting-phase
saturation is, or has been, increasing in magnitude.

 A decrease in the total liquid-phase saturation is evident when moving along the x-axis
starting with 100% liquid saturation.

 Note that, in the case of gas–oil relative permeability data, the process is always drainage as
gas is always the nonwetting phase in comparison to the oil and water phases.
 So basically, all gas–oil or gas–water relative permeability curves are drainage relative
permeability curves.

 If water is the wetting phase and relative permeabilities are measured by the displacement
of oil by water, the curves are called imbibition curves.

 If oil displaces water and relative permeabilities are measured from this displacement, the
curves are called drainage curves.

 The converse is true if instead of water, oil is the wetting phase.

LABORATORY MEASUREMENT OF RELATIVE PERMEABILITY

 Laboratory measurement techniques for obtaining the two-phase relative permeability data based
on the flow experiments are fairly well established.

 Essentially two different types of flow experiments can be conducted in reservoir rock samples
from which relative permeability data are determined.

 These methods are called steady state (SS) and unsteady state (USS), which are by far the most
common.

 In addition to the SS and USS methods, petroleum engineering literature also reports the use of
centrifuge technique to determine relative permeability data

 The procedure for determining gas–oil and oil–water relative permeabilities from the SS and
USS displacement tests requires very comprehensive testing programs composed of various
steps beginning with the initial preparation of the reservoir rock sample and ending with the
determination of final fluid saturations.
Flowchart for relative permeability measurements
Core plug samples used in relative permeability measurements

 Considering the importance of wettability on relative permeability, preserved samples are

always preferred assuming that at least the probability of such samples maintaining the
original reservoir wettability is definitely much higher in comparison to cleaned core plugs
where cleaning fluids may have a tendency to alter wettability by removing the natural
coating on grain surfaces.

 One practical problem with the use of preserved core samples is that the initial saturations
are unknown, especially the irreducible water saturation that actually is the starting point
of all relative permeability measurements. However, this problem can be overcome by
using the core plug-end trim data and considering that as representative of the entire core
plug.

 If for some reason preserved samples are not available and cleaned and dried samples are
to be used, then the samples should be cleaned preferably with nonreactive type of
cleaning agent so that they do not alter wetting characteristics.
Displacement fluids and test conditions

 It is theoretically possible to use a wide variety of displacement fluids, including air,

humidified nitrogen, synthetic oils (e.g., Isopar-L), model oil (e.g., n-decane), flashed or
degassed reservoir oil, live reservoir oil, pure water, formation brine, or reconstituted or
laboratory-prepared brine (based on known compositions).

 The choice of displacement fluids is, however, often dictated by factors such as availability
of physical samples of reservoir oil and brine, special issues related to the handling of
reservoir fluids (e.g., preserving the solution gas in live oils), impact of using displacement
fluids that are not native to the formation, and effects related to the phase behavior of live
oils (e.g., asphaltene or wax precipitation and deposition).

 However, some of the most commonly used sets of fluids include humidified nitrogen–
synthetic oil/degassed crude oil for gas–oil relative permeability measurements, and
laboratory-reconstituted brine–synthetic oil/degassed reservoir oil is used for oil–water
relative permeability tests.
Establishment of initial water saturation

 The minimum water saturation from capillary pressure data or core analysis data (Dean–
Stark or retort) is considered as an estimate of water saturation in the oil column at the
time of discovery.

 Typically, this is the same saturation that is used for initializing the relative permeability
measurements.

 This starting point is probably the most significant parameter when dealing with the
relative permeability measurements because the scale, qualitative, and quantitative
characteristics of the relative permeability curves are dictated by the value of S wi.

 When native-state or preserved core plug samples are used, it is assumed that these
samples already have established irreducible water saturation.

 However, when cleaned core samples are used, the value of irreducible water saturation
needs to be established in the sample before relative permeability testing can begin.
Determination of base permeability

 All tests for measuring the gas–oil or oil–water relative permeabilities basically begin with the
measurement of base permeability, that is, either the absolute permeability or the effective
permeability to oil at Swi.

 The determination of base permeability is the starting point of any relative permeability
measurement.

 The relative permeability of a particular phase is defined as the ratio of its effective permeability
to base permeability.

 As far as the base permeability is concerned, either the absolute permeability or effective
permeability to oil at irreducible water saturation can be used.

 If absolute permeability is used, the value obtained from the routine core analysis for the
preserved-state core plugs, after termination of the relative permeability testing, is employed,
whereas for cleaned core plugs, the value determined during the establishment of initial water
saturation is employed.
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