1) Introduction To Geomorphology

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 Geomorphology is the science Example

Structure: Limestone
concerned with the form of Earth's bedrock (Mesozoic)

surface and the processes that


create it.
Process:
Origin of the term (from Greek): Dissolution
(Cenozoic)
Geo = Earth; morphos = form; -ology =
science / study of.
 Landforms can be explained in terms
of structure (landform/landscape),
Time: 10,000 years
process (physical, Chemical,
biological) and time (Age).
 Aristotle (384-322 BC) - theorized about the origin of streams. Observation
 Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) - discussed the evolution of topography
 Father of Modern Geologic Principle: James Hutton (1726-1797) Scottish
geologist/physician, "Theory of the Earth" Description
“Uniformitarianism: the present is the key to the past,-” –
observable surface processes operating today, are assumed to have operated in the
past, according to constant laws of nature
Early Geomorphologists: Explaination
 Agassiz (1807-1873) French scientist, studied and popularized evidence for ancient
glaciations of the Alps
 G.K. Gilbert (1843-1918): worked extensively on geomorphic processes in Utah
Modern Geomorphologist: Correlation
 William Morris Davis (1850-1934) - worked extensive in landscape evolution and
river erosion Davisian Cycle“. He proposed the concept of landscape erosion cycle:
youth, mature, old age, peneplane, and rejuvenation.
 Horton / Strahler (1940's - 1950's) - quantitative geomorphology, numeric
quantification of landform characteristics and processes that form them
Quantitative
1) “Uniformitarianism: the present is the key to the past”
 the processes currently shaping the Earth‟s topography and
landforms are the same processes as those which occurred
in the past.

“The two images illustrate the concept of uniformitarianism. On the left is an imprint of ripple
marks in sandstone, similar current ripple forms in the right image. If the present is the key
to the past, we can infer that the sandstone rock formed in a low energy, fluvial environment
similar to the conditions in the right image”
 Processes
 “progressive steps by which an end is
attained”
 Weathering, erosion, transport,
deposition
 Agents
 “that which acts or has the power to act”
 Water, ice, wind…
 Energy
 Solar, geothermal, gravitational, chemical
 Systems
 “an assemblage of parts forming a whole”
 Fluvial, glacial, coastal
 Climate
 Determines dominant agents
 Time
 Evolution of landforms/landscapes
 Regionality - Physiography
Scale of landforms
continents (107 km2) to microscale features like ripples, glacial
striations (10-8 km2).
Age of landforms
continents (109 years) to microscale features like pools and
riffles (102 years).
Larger landforms most durable (longer-lasting).
Smaller landforms created/destroyed faster than larger ones.
Rates of geomorphic / geologic change slow for larger
areas,
faster when measured over small areas.
example: earthquakes compared to glaciers / rate of erosion in
small watershed compared to larger one
 process-response balance between opposing forces such that
any change in any of the controlling variables (independent
variables) will necessitate a corresponding response in the
dependent variables to maintain overall system equilibrium.
 The elements of the landscape adjust to changes in the
process, forming a cause and effect relationship to maintain
static equilibrium.
 e.g. River systems: if a river is shifted out of equilibrium by
increased sediment load, the river will adjust its geometry to
carry the load relative to processes of erosion, transporation
and deposition.
 Dynamic Equilibrium: Hack (1960's) - elements of the
landscape rapidly adjust form in response to changes in the
processes operating on them.
 Within an equilibrium system, an equal state of disequilibrium
also exists
 Geomorphic Thresholds: represent the limits of
equilibrium or critical limits, as processes extend beyond
thresholds, disequilibrium or response occurs.
 E.g. hillslope water moisture are exceeded, the system may
respond in the form of slope failure or landslide.
 Extrinsic Threshold:-
 (a) meteorite impact,
 (b) storm/rainfall event - flood discharge
 Intrinsic Threshold :-
 (a) roof collapse of a cave / sinkhole
 (b) channel cutoff of a meander loop
 Defination - the action involved when a
force induces a change either chemical
or physical in the materials or forms at
the earth’s surface.
 Geomorphology Agents
 have the ability to acquire and
transport the earth material. eg;
Water, glacier, wind, gravity
 Geomorphology processes -
classified into 3 groups (based on –
the origin of the agents)
 Endogenic
 Excogenic
 Extra-terrestrial
 destructive geomorphic processes that originate
at or above the earth's surface (still in atmosphere
region).
Processes Agents
Degradation Running water, groundwater,
(destructional/erosion) sea water, wind, glacier, gravity
-Weathering / denudation
- mass wasting
- erosion
Agradation (sedimention) Running water, groundwater,
sea water, wind, glacier, gravity
Biological Human, plant, animals
 internal processes within the earth that result in uplift and
rejuvenation of the landscape.
 Processes occuring in Earth's interior that create relief by
elevating mountains and land masses, and depressing basins
and ocean floors
 Cause by the movement of plate tectonic.

1) Diastrophism or Tectonism: Collective processes that


deform the earth's crust
 a. Epeirogeny: regional uplift or depression of the earth's crust
over large areas with little internal deformation of original rock
structure (broad, regional, gentle uplift)
 b. Orogeny: relatively intense deformation of the crust to form
structural mountains (folded, faulted, uplifted terrane).
 Isostacy: principle based on density contrasts within
the crust of the earth. Less dense rock material (e.g.
granitic continental rocks) will tend to ride at a higher
elevation compared to more dense rock material (e.g.
basaltic oceanic rocks).
 The driving force of isostacy is gravity, which is responsive to
a heterogenous distribution of rock density.
 Isostatic Equilibrium: Masses of crustal rock of a given
density will adjust themselves relative to the earth's
gravitational field, density and loading.
 Processes of changing landform or landscape of the earth by
agents originate from outer space or atmosphere
 Meteorite Crater, Arizona, US, - cause by the meteorite
impact. Coesite mineral is a product of meteorite impact
(dinamic metamorphism, high pressure)
 200 crater have been found at different locations around the
world
 Some reseacher reported that hundered tons of cosmic dust in
a day have been deposited at the earth surface.

Processes Agents
Rain of Cosmic dust Cosmic dust
Meteorit impact meteorit
This impact crater in Winslow, Arizona, is one of about 200 on Earth. At 50,000 years old, it’s
also one of the newest. The crater is 1.1 km (.7 mi) in diameter and 150 m (495 ft) deep. The
meteorite that made it weighed 100,000 tons. Most meteorites that hit the ground are too
small to leave a crater, but anything larger than a house explodes just before or during
impact and leaves a crater that is much larger than itself.

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