Module 3: Protocols and

Models
Introduction to Networks 7.0
(ITN)
Module Objectives
Module Title: Protocols and Models
Module Objective: Explain how network protocols enable devices to access local and remote
network resources.
Topic Title Topic Objective
The Rules Describe the types of rules that are necessary to successfully communicate.

Protocols Explain why protocols are necessary in network communication.

Protocol Suites Explain the purpose of adhering to a protocol suite.

Standards Organizations Explain the role of standards organizations in establishing protocols for network
interoperability.

Reference Models Explain how the TCP/IP model and the OSI model are used to facilitate
standardization in the communication process.

Data Encapsulation Explain how data encapsulation allows data to be transported across the
network.
Data Access Explain how local hosts access local resources on a network.

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3.1 The Rules

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The Rules
Video – Devices in a Bubble

This video will explain the protocols that devices use to see their place in the network
and communicate with other devices.

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The Rules
Communications Fundamentals
Networks can vary in size and complexity. It is not enough to have a connection,
devices must agree on “how” to communicate.
There are three elements to any communication:
• There will be a source (sender).
• There will be a destination (receiver).
• There will be a channel (media) that provides for the path of communications to
occur.

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The Rules
Communications Protocols
• All communications are governed by protocols.

• Protocols are the rules that communications will follow.

• These rules will vary depending on the protocol.

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The Rules
Rule Establishment (Cont.)
Protocols must account for the following requirements:
• An identified sender and receiver
• Common language and grammar
• Speed and timing of delivery
• Confirmation or acknowledgment requirements

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The Rules
Network Protocol Requirements
Common computer protocols must be in agreement and include the following
requirements:
• Message encoding
• Message formatting and encapsulation
• Message size
• Message timing
• Message delivery options

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The Rules
Message Encoding
• Encoding is the process of converting information into another acceptable form for
transmission.
• Decoding reverses this process to interpret the information.

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The Rules
Message Formatting and Encapsulation
• When a message is sent, it must use a specific format or structure.

• Message formats depend on the type of message and the channel that is used to
deliver the message.

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The Rules
Message Size
Encoding between hosts must be in an appropriate format for the medium.
• Messages sent across the network are converted to bits
• The bits are encoded into a pattern of light, sound, or electrical impulses.
• The destination host must decode the signals to interpret the message.

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The Rules
Message Timing
Message timing includes the following:
Flow Control – Manages the rate of data transmission and defines how much information
can be sent and the speed at which it can be delivered.
Response Timeout – Manages how long a device waits when it does not hear a reply from
the destination.
Access method - Determines when someone can send a message.
• There may be various rules governing issues like “collisions”. This is when more than one
device sends traffic at the same time and the messages become corrupt.
• Some protocols are proactive and attempt to prevent collisions; other protocols are
reactive and establish a recovery method after the collision occurs.

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The Rules
Message Delivery Options
Message delivery may one of the following methods:
• Unicast – one to one communication
• Multicast – one to many, typically not all
• Broadcast – one to all

Note: Broadcasts are used in IPv4 networks, but are not an option for IPv6. Later we will also
see “Anycast” as an additional delivery option for IPv6.

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3.2 Protocols

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Protocols
Network Protocol Overview
Network protocols define a
Protocol Type Description
common set of rules.
• Can be implemented on
Network enable two or more devices to communicate over
devices in: Communications one or more networks
• Software
• Hardware Network Security secure data to provide authentication, data
integrity, and data encryption
• Both
• Protocols have their own: Routing enable routers to exchange route information,
compare path information, and select best path
• Function
• Format Service used for the automatic detection of devices or
• Rules Discovery services

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Protocols
Network Protocol Functions
• Devices use agreed-upon protocols
to communicate .
• Protocols may have may have one
or functions.

Function Description
Addressing Identifies sender and receiver
Reliability Provides guaranteed delivery
Flow Control Ensures data flows at an efficient rate
Sequencing Uniquely labels each transmitted segment of data
Error Detection Determines if data became corrupted during transmission
Application Interface Process-to-process communications between network applications

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Protocols
Protocol Interaction
• Networks require the use of several
protocols.
• Each protocol has its own function and
format.
Protocol Function
Hypertext Transfer  Governs the way a web server and a web client interact
Protocol (HTTP)  Defines content and format
Transmission Control  Manages the individual conversations
Protocol (TCP)  Provides guaranteed delivery
 Manages flow control
Internet Protocol (IP) Delivers messages globally from the sender to the receiver
Ethernet Delivers messages from one NIC to another NIC on the same Ethernet
Local Area Network (LAN)

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3.3 Protocol Suites

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Protocol Suites
Network Protocol Suites
Protocols must be able to work with other
protocols.
Protocol suite:
• A group of inter-related protocols
necessary to perform a communication
function
• Sets of rules that work together to help
solve a problem
The protocols are viewed in terms of layers:
• Higher Layers
• Lower Layers- concerned with moving
data and provide services to upper layers

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Protocol Suites
Evolution of Protocol Suites
There are several protocol suites.
• Internet Protocol Suite or TCP/IP- The
most common protocol suite and maintained
by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF)
• Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
protocols- Developed by the International
Organization for Standardization (ISO) and
the International Telecommunications Union
(ITU)
• AppleTalk- Proprietary suite release by
Apple Inc.
• Novell NetWare- Proprietary suite
developed by Novell Inc.

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Protocol Suites
TCP/IP Protocol Example
• TCP/IP protocols operate at the
application, transport, and
internet layers.
• The most common network
access layer LAN protocols are
Ethernet and WLAN (wireless
LAN).

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Protocol Suites
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
• TCP/IP is the protocol suite used by
the internet and includes many
protocols.
• TCP/IP is:

• An open standard protocol suite

that is freely available to the
public and can be used by any
vendor
• A standards-based protocol suite
that is endorsed by the networking
industry and approved by a
standards organization to ensure
interoperability

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Protocol Suites
TCP/IP Communication Process
• A web server encapsulating and sending a • A client de-encapsulating the web page for
web page to a client. the web browser

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3.4 Standards Organizations

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Standards Organizations
Open Standards
Open standards encourage:
• interoperability

• competition

• innovation

Standards organizations are:

• vendor-neutral

• non-profit organizations

• established to develop and promote the

concept of open standards.

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Standards Organizations
• Internet Society (ISOC) - Promotes
Internet Standards the open development and evolution of
internet
• Internet Architecture Board (IAB) -
Responsible for management and
development of internet standards
• Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF) - Develops, updates, and
maintains internet and TCP/IP
technologies
• Internet Research Task Force (IRTF) -
Focused on long-term research related
to internet and TCP/IP protocols

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Standards Organizations
Internet Standards (Cont.)
Standards organizations involved with the
development and support of TCP/IP
• Internet Corporation for Assigned
Names and Numbers (ICANN) -
Coordinates IP address allocation, the
management of domain names, and
assignment of other information
• Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
(IANA) - Oversees and manages IP
address allocation, domain name
management, and protocol identifiers for
ICANN

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Standards Organizations
Electronic and Communications Standards
• Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE, pronounced “I-triple-E”)
- dedicated to creating standards in power and energy, healthcare,
telecommunications, and networking
• Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) - develops standards relating to electrical
wiring, connectors, and the 19-inch racks used to mount networking equipment
• Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) - develops communication
standards in radio equipment, cellular towers, Voice over IP (VoIP) devices, satellite
communications, and more
• International Telecommunications Union-Telecommunication Standardization
Sector (ITU-T) - defines standards for video compression, Internet Protocol
Television (IPTV), and broadband communications, such as a digital subscriber line
(DSL)
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3.5 Reference Models

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Reference Models
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model
Complex concepts such as how a
network operates can be difficult to
explain and understand. For this
reason, a layered model is used.
Two layered models describe network
operations:
• Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Reference Model
• TCP/IP Reference Model

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Reference Models
The Benefits of Using a Layered Model (Cont.)
These are the benefits of using a layered model:
• Assist in protocol design because protocols that operate at a specific layer have
defined information that they act upon and a defined interface to the layers above
and below
• Foster competition because products from different vendors can work together

• Prevent technology or capability changes in one layer from affecting other layers
above and below
• Provide a common language to describe networking functions and capabilities

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Reference Models
The OSI Reference Model
OSI Model Layer Description
7 - Application Contains protocols used for process-to-process communications.
Provides for common representation of the data transferred between application
6 - Presentation
layer services.

5 - Session Provides services to the presentation layer and to manage data exchange.

Defines services to segment, transfer, and reassemble the data for individual
4 - Transport
communications.

3 - Network Provides services to exchange the individual pieces of data over the network.

2 - Data Link Describes methods for exchanging data frames over a common media.

Describes the means to activate, maintain, and de-activate physical

1 - Physical
connections.

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Reference Models
The TCP/IP Reference Model
TCP/IP Model
Description
Layer
Application Represents data to the user, plus encoding and dialog control.

Transport Supports communication between various devices across diverse networks.

Internet Determines the best path through the network.

Network Access Controls the hardware devices and media that make up the network.

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3.6 Data Encapsulation

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Data Encapsulation
Segmenting Messages Segmenting is the process of breaking up
messages into smaller units. Multiplexing is
the processes of taking multiple streams of
segmented data and interleaving them
together.
Segmenting messages has two primary
benefits:
• Increases speed - Large amounts of
data can be sent over the network
without tying up a communications link.
• Increases efficiency - Only segments
which fail to reach the destination need to
be retransmitted, not the entire data
stream.

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Data Encapsulation
Sequencing

Sequencing messages is the process of

numbering the segments so that the
message may be reassembled at the
destination.
TCP is responsible for sequencing the
individual segments.

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Data Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process where protocols
Protocol Data Units add their information to the data.
• At each stage of the process, a PDU has a
different name to reflect its new functions.
• There is no universal naming convention for
PDUs, in this course, the PDUs are named
according to the protocols of the TCP/IP
suite.
• PDUs passing down the stack are as
follows:
1. Data (Data Stream)
2. Segment
3. Packet
4. Frame
5. Bits (Bit Stream)
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Data Encapsulation
Encapsulation Example
• Encapsulation is a top down
process.
• The level above does its
process and then passes it
down to the next level of the
model. This process is
repeated by each layer until
it is sent out as a bit stream.

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Data Encapsulation
De-encapsulation Example
• Data is de-encapsulated as it moves up
the stack.
• When a layer completes its process,
that layer strips off its header and
passes it up to the next level to be
processed. This is repeated at each
layer until it is a data stream that the
application can process.
1. Received as Bits (Bit Stream)
2. Frame
3. Packet
4. Segment
5. Data (Data Stream)
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3.8 Module Practice and Quiz

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Module Practice and Quiz
What did I learn in this module?
The Rules
• Protocols must have a sender and a receiver.
• Common computer protocols include these requirements: message encoding, formatting
and encapsulation, size, timing, and delivery options.
Protocols
• To send a message across the network requires the use of several protocols.
• Each network protocol has its own function, format, and rules for communications.
Protocol Suites
• A protocol suite is a group of inter-related protocols.
• TCP/IP protocol suite are the protocols used today.
Standards Organizations
• Open standards encourage interoperability, competition, and innovation.
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Module Practice and Quiz
What did I learn in this module? (Cont.)
Reference Models
• The two models used in networking are the TCP/IP and the OSI model.
• The TCP/IP model has 4 layers and the OSI model has 7 layers.
Data Encapsulation
• The form that a piece of data takes at any layer is called a protocol data unit (PDU).
• There are five different PDUs used in the data encapsulation process: data, segment, packet,
frame, and bits

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