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Fundamental tradeoff between  B and  p (in general)

 If  p improves then B
deteriorates (or vice versa)
 May need to waste more power to get a better data rate.

 May need to use less power (to save on battery life) at the
expense of a lower data rate.
 p vs.  B is not the only consideration.
 Use other factors to evaluate → complexity, resistance to
MRC impairments, etc.

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Bandwidth Specifications
Many definitions depending on application → all use
Power Spectral Density (PSD) of modulated bandpass
signal
 W (f)2 
SW ( f )  lim  T 
T   T 
 

Many signals (like square pulses) have some power at all

frequencies.

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1 in dB >10 log (1) = 0; 0.5 in dB> 10 log (0.5)=-3
10 10
B’ : half-power (-3 dB) BW
 B” : null-to-null BW
 B’” : absolute BW → range where PSD > 0
FCC definition of occupied BW → BW contains 99% of
signal power
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III. Geometric Representation of Modulation Signal
Geometric Representation of Modulation Signals -
Constellation Diagrams
 Graphical representation of complex ( A & θ) digital
modulation types
 Provide insight into modulation performance
 Modulation set, S, with M possible signals

 Binary modulation → M = 2 → each signal = 1 bit of information

 M-ary modulation → M > 2 → each signal > 1 bit of information

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Example: Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

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Phase change between bits → Phase shifts of 180° for
each bit.
Note that this can also be viewed as AM with +/-
amplitude changes

Dimension of the vector space is the # of basis signals

required to represent S.

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Plot amplitude & phase of S in vector space :

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Constellation Diagram
Left one is the constellation diagram of 4QAM and
the right one is for 16 QAM
Constellation diagram properties :
1) Distance between signals is related to differences in
modulation waveforms
 Large distance → “sparse” → easy to discriminate → good BER
@ low SNR (Eb / No )
 From above, noise of -2 added to would make the
received signal look like s2(t) → error.
 From , noise of > - would make the result closer to -
and would make the decoder choose s2(t) → error.
∴ Above example is Power Efficient (related to density with
respect to # states/N)
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2) Occupied BW ↓ as # signal states ↑
If we can represent more bits per symbol, then we
need less BW for a given data rate.
Small separation → “dense” → more signal
states/symbol → more information/Hz !!
∴ Bandwidth Efficient

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List of digital modulation techniques
The most common digital modulation techniques are:
Phase-shift keying (PSK):
Binary PSK (BPSK), using M=2 symbols
Quadrature PSK (QPSK), using M=4 symbols
8PSK, using M=8 symbols
16PSK, using M=16 symbols
Differential PSK (DPSK)
Differential QPSK (DQPSK)
Offset QPSK (OQPSK )
π/4–QPSK
List of digital modulation techniques
 Frequency shift keying(FSK):
 Audio frequency shift keying (AFSK)
 Multi- frequency shift keying  (M-ary FSK or MFSK)
 Dual-tone multi-frequency (DTMF)
Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
 On-off keying (OOK), the most common ASK form
 M-ary vestigial sideband modulation, for example 8VSB
Quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) - a
combination of PSK and ASK:
 Polar modulation like QAM a combination of PSK and ASK
List of digital modulation techniques
 Continuous phase modulation (CPM) methods:
 Minimum-shift keying (MSK)
 Gaussian minimum-shift keying (GMSK)
 Continuous-phase frequency-shift keying (CPFSK)
 Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing (OFDM)
modulation:
 discrete multitone (DMT) - including adaptive modulation and bit-
loading.
 Wavelet modulation
 Trellis coded modulation (TCM), also known as trellis modulation
 Spread-spectrum techniques:
 Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
 Chirp spread spectrum (CSS) according to IEEE 802.15.4a CSS uses
pseudo-stochastic coding
 Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) applies a special scheme
for channel release
 SIM31(SIM) New digital Mode SIM31 SIM63 tks SWL Tunisian
ASK
ASK On-off keying (Amplitude Shift Keying) –
frequency is kept constant, amplitude has 2 levels (for
bit 1 and for bit 0)

The binary sequence 0010110010

FSK (Frequency shift keyring)
PSK (Phase shift keyring)
Linear Modulation Methods
In linear modulation techniques, the amplitude of the
transmitted signal varies linearly with the modulating
digital signal.
Performance is evaluated with respect to Eb / No

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BPSK
BPSK → Binary Phase Shift Keying

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BPSK Cont…

Phase transitions force carrier amplitude to change

from “+” to “−”.
Amplitude varies in time

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BPSK Cont…

 Null-to-null RF BW = 2 R = 2 / T
b b
 90% BW = 1.6 R for rectangular pulses
b
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BPSK Cont…
Probability of Bit Error is proportional to the distance
between the closest points in the constellation.
A simple upper bound can be found using the
assumption that noise is additive, white, and Gaussian.

d is distance between nearest constellation points.

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