Electromagnetic

Syllabus:
Electrostatics; Electrostatic field in matter: Electric field
and potential due to a dipole, Dielectrics; displacement;
electrostatic energy in dielectrics; boundary conditions for
E and D. Magnetostatics: Magnetic field due to a moving
charge, motion of charged particles in electric and
magnetic fields; Boundary conditions on B and H. Hall
effect; Electromagnetic Induction: Faraday’s law, Lenz’s
law, energy in magnetic field Maxwell’s equations and
electromagnetic waves: Displacement currents,
generalization of Ampere’s law, Maxwell’s equations,
Energy flow in EM waves. Poynting,s vector
 Magnetostatics

• If charges are moving with constant velocity, a static

magnetic (or magnetostatic) field is produced. Thus,
magnetostatic fields originate from currents (for
instance, direct currents in current-carrying wires).

• Most of the equations we have derived for the

electric fields may be readily used to obtain
corresponding equations for magnetic fields if the
equivalent analogous quantities are substituted.
 Biot – Savart’s Law

•The magnetic field intensity

dH produced at a point P by
the differential current
element Idl is proportional to
the product of Idl and the sine
dH  k
Idl sin  of the angle  between the
R2 element and the line joining P
IN SI units k ,  1 , so to the element and is inversely
4 proportional to the square of
Idl sin  the distance R between P and
dH 
4R 2 the element.
Using the definition of cross product (A  B  AB sin AB en )
we can represent the previous equation in vector form as

Idl  er Idl  R RR er  R

dH   R
4 R 2 4 R 3

The direction of d H can be determined by the right-hand rule

or by the right-handed screw rule.

I(dl  err ) I[dl  r  r  ]

dH  2
 3
4 r  r  4 r  r 
If the position of the field point is specified by  and the
r
position of the source point by r

where e is the unit vector directed from the source point to

r r
the field point, and is the distance between these two
r  r
points.
 Magnetostatics

Example. A current element is located at x=2cm,y=0, and

z=0. The current has a magnitude of 150 mA and flows in
the +y direction. The length of the current element is 1mm.
Find the contribution of this element to the magnetic field
at x=0, y=3cm, z=0
dl  103 ey r   2 * 10 2 ex (r  r )  (2ex  3ey ) * 102

r  r   13 * 102
dl * (r  r )  103 ey * (2ex  3ey ) * 102
 10-5(2ez )
ey  ex   ex
ey  ey  0

I[dl  (r  r )]
dH  3
4 r  r 
0.15(2 * 10-5 )ez

4( 13 * 102 )3
 5.09 * 10-3 ez A m
 Magnetostatics

The field produced by a

wire can be found adding
up the fields produced by a
large number of current
elements placed head to
tail along the wire (the
principle of superposition).
 Magnetostatics

Consider an infinitely long straight wire located on the z axis

and carrying a current I in the +z direction. Let a field point
be located at z=0 at a radial distance R from the wire.

R
(R  Z2 )1 / 2
2

I(dl  err ) Idz(ez  err ) Idz sin  e
r  r   (R 2  Z2 )1 / 2 dH  2
 2

4 r  r  4 r  r  4(R 2  Z2 )

IR 
 
Idz R 1 Z 
H 
z  
4 (R 2
 Z2
) (R 2
 Z2 1/2
)
  2

(R  Z 2 3/2
)
dz 
4  R 2 R 2  Z2

 
I I
 (1  1) 
4R 2 R
Magnetostatics
 Ampere’s Circuital Law in Integral Form

• Ampere’s Circuital Law in integral form states

that “the circulation of the magnetic flux density
in free space is proportional to the total current
through the surface bounding the path over
which the circulation is computed.”


C
B  d l   0 I encl

9
Ampere’s Circuital Law in Integral Form

dl By convention, dS is
taken to be in the
dS direction defined by the
S
right-hand rule applied
to dl.
Since volume current
density is the most
I encl   J  d s general, we can write
S Iencl in this way.

10
 Ampere’s Law and Gauss’s Law

• Just as Gauss’s law can be used to derive the

electrostatic field from symmetric charge
distributions, so Ampere’s law can be used to derive
the magnetostatic field from symmetric current
distributions.

11
 Postulates of Magnetostatics
in Free Space
Differential Form Integral Form

B  0 
s
B  d s  0

  B  0 J

c
B  d l   0 I
 Magnetic Force
One can tell if a magnetostatic field is present because it
exerts forces on moving charges and on currents. If a
currentIdl B
element is located in a magnetic field , it experiences a
force d F  Idl  B
Idl
This force, acting on current element , is in a direction
perpendicular
B to the current
B element and also perpendicular
to . It is largest when and the wire are perpendicular.

The force acting on a charge q moving through a magnetic

V
field with velocity is given by
F  q(V  B )

The force is perpendicular to the direction of charge motion,

and is also perpendicular to B .
 Magnetic Flux Density
In the presence of an external magnetic field, a magnetic material
gets magnetized (similar to an iron core). This property is referred
to as magnetization M defined as
M  mH
where m (“chi”) is the material’s magnetic susceptibility.
The total magnetic flux density inside the magnetic material
including the effect of magnetization M in the presence of an
external magnetic field H can be written as
B  o H + o M

Substituting M   m H

B  o (1   m ) H = o  r H   H

Where r  1   m
where  is the material’s permeability, related to free space
permittivity by the factor r, called the relative permeability.
 Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions
Will use Ampere’s circuital law and Gauss’s law to derive normal and
tangential boundary conditions for magnetostatics.
Ampere’s circuit law:
 HdL  I enc Path 1

Path 4

Path 2
The current enclosed by the path is Path 3

I enc   KdW  K w.

We can break up the circulation of H into four integrals:

b c d a

 HdL         HdL  K w.

a b c d
b w

Path 1:  HdL   H a dLa T  H T1w.

T1 T
a 0

c 0 h / 2
h
Path 2:
 HdL   H N1a N dLa N   H N 2 a N dLa N    H N1  H N 2 
b h / 2 0
2
 Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions
d 0
Path 3:
 HdL   H T2
aT dLa T   H T 2 w.
c w

a 0 h / 2
h
Path 4:  HdL   H N 2a N dLa N   H N1a N dLa N   H N1  H N 2 
d h / 2 0
2
Now combining our results (i.e., Path 1 + Path 2 + Path 3 + Path 4), we
obtain
ACL:  HdL  I enc

 HdL   H T1  H T 2  w I enc   KdW  K w

Equating

Tangential BC: H T1  H T 2  K

A more general expression for the first magnetostatic

boundary condition can be written as
a 21   H1  H 2   K

where a21 is a unit vector normal going from media 2 to media 1.

 Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions
Special Case: If the surface current density K = 0, we get
If K = 0
H T1  H T 2  K H T1  H T 2

The tangential magnetic field intensity is

continuous across the boundary when
the surface current density is zero.
Important Note:
B
We know that B  o r H (or) H 
o  r
Using the above relation, we obtain
BT1 B
H T1  H T 2  T2
o 1 o  2

Therefore, we can say that BT1  BT2

The tangential component of the magnetic flux density B is
not continuous across the boundary.
 Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions
Gauss’s Law for Magnetostatic fields:

 BdS = 0

To find the second boundary condition, we center a

Gaussian pillbox across the interface as shown in Figure.

We can shrink h such that the flux out of the side of

the pillbox is negligible. Then we have
 BdS   B a dSa N   BN 2a N dS ( a N )
N1 N

  BN1  BN 2  S  0.

Normal BC: BN1  BN 2 .

 Magnetostatic Boundary Conditions
Normal BC: BN1  BN 2

Thus, we see that the normal component

of the magnetic flux density must be
continuous across the boundary.
Important Note:
We know that B  o  r H

Using the above relation, we obtain

BN1  BN 2 o 1 H N1  o  2 H N2

Therefore, we can say that H N1  H N2

The normal component of the magnetic field intensity is not
continuous across the boundary (but the magnetic flux density
is continuous).
 Example 1
• Given that A/m in region , where , calculate
a) and
b) and in region , where
 Example 2
• Region 1, described by , is free space, whereas
region 2, described by , is a magnetic material
for which . Assuming that the boundary
between the material and free space is
current free, find if Wb/m2.
 Homework
• The -plane serves as the interface between
two different media. Medium 1 ) is filled with
a material whose , and medium 2 ) is filled
with a material whose . If the interface carries
current mA/m, and mWb/m2, find and .
 Hall Effect

In 1879 E. H. Hall observed that when

an electrical current passes through a
sample placed in a magnetic field, a
potential proportional to the current and
to the magnetic field is developed across
the material in a direction perpendicular
to both the current and to the magnetic
Edwin Herbert Hall
(1855-1938) field. This effect is known as the Hall
American physicist effect.
 Hall Effect

Hall effect is the basis of many practical

applications such as magnetic field
measurements, position and motion detectors,
etc. We also use Hall effect to study the
characteristic properties of conductors or
semiconductors.
• If a current carrying semiconductor specimen
is placed in a magnetic field , then an induced
Electric field (E) is generated , which will
produced potential difference between two
surfaces of semiconductor . This potential
difference is known as “Hall Voltage” (VH) and
is proportional to magnetic field (B) and
current (i)
 Theory of the Hall effect


B

Figure 1: Hall Effect principle diagram. (a) Hall Effect in N-type

semiconductor (electrons are the charge carriers); (b) Hall Effect
in P-type semiconductor (holes are the charge carriers)
Two forces on charge carriers:
   
Lorentz force: FM  qv  B Electric force: FE  qE
 Theory of the Hall effect

 
When steady state is reached, FM  FE , and a
steady potential difference VA' A  VA'  VA is formed.
We call this potential difference the Hall voltage,
VH .
In Figure 1.a, VH  VA'  VA  0 , the sample is
N-type semiconductor.
In Figure 1.b, VH  VA'  VA  0 , the sample is
P-type semiconductor.
 When electrons flow without
magnetic field...

t semiconductor slice

+ _

d
I I
When the magnetic field is turned on ...

I qBv

B-field
 As time goes by...
high
potential

qE

low
qBv = qE
potential
 Finally...

VH
I

B-field
 Hall voltage:

1 IB IB
VH    RH
ne d d

1
RH： the Hall coefficient （RH  ）
ne , it depends on the charge carrier density,
and it is one characteristic quantity of the semiconductor.
I: the current passing through the semiconductor sample.

B: magnetic induction of the magnetic field in which the
semiconductor sample is placed.

d: thickness of the sample.

 IB
VH  RH VH  IB
d

For the current and the magnetic field, if we

keep one of them a constant and change the
other, we can find the relation between the Hall
voltage and the varying quantity. According to
this relation, it is easy to find the Hall coefficient
RH .
Keep IS (current through the sample) constant:

VH

IS
slope  RH
d

I M (B  I M )
IM : the current inducing magnetic field
Keep IM constant:

VH

IM
slope  RH
d

IS
 When R H is obtained, the following parameters
can be determined :

﹡Determine the conduction type of the sample by

the sign of R H or VH .

Suppose I S and B are in the directions shown in
Figure 1. If R H is negative, V H is negative and the
sample is N-type semiconductor, and vise versa.
Electromagnetic Induction
Electromagnetic Induction
Faraday’s Law of Induction

dB
 
dt
A changing magnetic flux
induces an EMF
 What is EMF?
 
   E  d s

Looks like potential. It’s a

“driving force” for current
 Faraday’s Law of Induction
  dB
   E  d s  
dt
A changing magnetic flux induces an
EMF, a curling E field
 Minus Sign? Lenz’s Law

Induced EMF is in direction that opposes the

change in flux that caused it
 Faraday’s Law of Induction

dB
 
dt
Changing magnetic flux induces an EMF

Lenz: Induction opposes change

 Ways to Induce EMF
d
    BA cos  
dt
• Quantities which can vary with time:

• Magnitude of B
• Area A enclosed by the loop
• Angle q between B and loop normal
 Maxwell’s Equations

• We have been examining a variety of electrical and

magnetic phenomena
• James Clerk Maxwell summarized all of electricity
and magnetism in just four equations
• Remarkably, the equations predict the existence of
electromagnetic waves
 Maxwell’s Equations

As you can see we need some vector calculus to use these equations. That isn’t
going to happen in this class, but I wanted you to see the equations anyway.
 Maxwell’s Equations

• The first is Gauss’s Law which is an extended form of

Coulomb’s Law
• The second is the equivalent for magnetic fields,
except that we know that magnetic poles always
occur in pairs (north & south)
 Maxwell’s Equations

• The third is Faraday’s Law that a changing magnetic

field produces an electric field
• The fourth is that a changing electric field produces a
magnetic field
• The latter is a bit of a stretch. We knew that a
current produces a magnetic field
 Maxwell’s Equations

• Start with Ampere’s Law

 B l   I
|| 0

Earlier, we just went on a

closed path enclosing surface
1. But according to Ampere’s
 Law, we could have
considered surface 2. The
current enclosed is the same
as for surface 1. We can say
that the current flowing into
any volume must equal that
coming out.
 Maxwell’s Equations

• Suppose we have a charged capacitor and it begins to

discharge
Surface 1 works
but surface 2 has
no current
passing through
the surface yet
there is a
magnetic field
inside the
surface.
Maxwell’s Equations

Same problem
here. Surface 1
works, but no
current passes
through surface
two which
encloses a
magnetic field.
What is
happening???
 Maxwell’s Equations

• While the capacitor is discharging, a current flows

• The electric field between the plates of the capacitor
is decreasing as current flows
• Maxwell said the changing electric field is equivalent
to a current
• He called it the displacement current
 Maxwell’s Equations

 B l   I
|| 0 C  ID 
A 
Q  CV  0  Ed  0 AE
d 
Q E
 0 A  ID
t t
E  AE
E
I D  0
t
E
 B||l  0IC  00 t
 Electromagnetic Waves

• So, a magnetic field will be produced in space if there

is a changing electric field
• But, this magnetic field is changing since the electric
field is changing
• A changing magnetic field produces an electric field
that is also changing
• We have a self-perpetuating system
Electromagnetic Waves

Close switch and current

flows briefly. Sets up
electric field. Current flow
sets up magnetic field as
little circles around the
wires. Fields not
instantaneous, but form in
time. Energy is stored in
fields and cannot move
infinitely fast.
 Electromagnetic Waves

Picture a shows first half cycle. When current reverses in

picture b, the fields reverse. See the first disturbance moving
outward. These are the electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic Waves

Notice that the electric and

magnetic fields are at right
angles to one another! They
are also perpendicular to the
direction of motion of the
wave.
 Speed of EM Waves

• Now that we have shown how the waves are formed

from oscillating charges, we need to see if we can
predict how fast the move
• We move far away from the source so that the wave
fronts are essentially flat
• Just like dropping a rock in a pond and looking at the
waves a few hundred feet away from the impact
point
 Speed of EM Waves

This picture defines the coordinate system we will use in our

discussion. Wave propagates along the x-axis. The electric field
varies in the y-direction and the magnetic field in the z-direction.
 Speed of EM Waves

We are going to apply Faraday’s Law to the imaginary moving rectangle abcd.
Compute the magnetic flux change

B BA By 0vt

emf     By 0v
t t t
 Speed of EM Waves

• We can say the emf around the loop is the sum of

the individual emfs going along each straight line
segment in the loop
• We look at the work done in moving a test charge
around the loop
• emf = W/q = Fd/q = Ed
• emf = Ey0 = By0v
• E = Bv
 Speed of EM Waves

Now we are going to look at the change in electric flux. Set a new imaginary
rectangle and play the same game as before.

E Ez0vt
 B||l  00 t  00 t  00 Ez0v
 Speed of EM Waves

Bz0  00 Ez0v

B  00 Ev
E  Bv
B  00 (Bv)v
1  00v 2
1
v
00
1
v
8.85 1012  4  107
v  3 10 8
The Energy Carried by Electromagnetic
Waves
 Poynting Vector

• The rate of energy transport per unit area in EM wave is

described by a vector, called the Poynting vector

• The direction of the Poynting vector of an electromagnetic wave

at any point gives the wave's direction of travel and the direction
of energy transport at that point.
• The magnitude of S is