Parse Trees

--Sakshi Surve
Basics of Grammar :
A language is set of strings over a set of symbols

Language --- Finite set of sentences

Sentence --- Finite set of words
Words --- Finite set of Alphabets / Symbols

Grammar is essential to give syntactical structure to the

language

Grammar is the set of rules used to describe string of Language

The language may be Programming language or natural

language …Any type will require grammar
 Alphabets

Words

Grammar

Sentences
Example :
If we want English statement “Dog Runs” ….We may use following rules :
<Sentence>  <Noun> <Verb>
<Noun>  Dog
< Verb >  Runs

<Sentence>  <Noun> <Verb>

 Dog Runs

These rules indicate how the sentence of the form ‘Noun’ followed by
‘Verb’ can be generated.

There are many such rules of the language and they are collectively called
the Grammar for the language
Constituents of Grammar :
Two Symbols :
Terminals
Non Terminals

Terminals are part of the generated sentence

E.g. In the above example, ‘Dog’ and ‘Runs’ are terminal
symbols as they collectively formulate the statement and
are part of the statement
Non Terminals take part in the formation of the
statement , but are not part of the generated sentence.

No statement that is generated using grammar will contain

Non Terminals in it.
 E.g. In above example , ‘Sentence’ , ‘Noun’ , ‘Verb’ are Non-
terminals…which are not in the generated statement but
took part on the formation of the statement
<Sentence>  <Noun> <Verb>
 Dog Runs

Thus, Non-terminals are essential while declaring the rules

These rules are called as ‘Productions’ or ‘Production
Rules’
Formal Definition :
Like a natural language has Constituents like Nouns, Verbs,
Adjectives etc….

Two Constituents :
Terminals
Non terminals

This grammar that is based on Constituent structure is

called Constituent Structure Grammar Or Phrase
Structure Grammar

The idea is …Basing a grammar on Constituent

structure blocks
Summary :
If we want English statement “Dog Runs” ….We may use
following rules :
<Sentence>  <Noun> <Verb>
<Noun>  Dog
< Verb >  Runs

We have to begin with rule ….<Sentence>  <Noun> <Verb>

Start Symbol ……………..Sentence
Non Terminals…..Sentence, Noun, Verb
Terminals…….Dog ,Runs
Rules……indicating how the sentence can be generated.
Grammar :
A Grammar G is a four tuple collection G = (V, T, P, S)
….Where

 V is the (finite) set of variables or Non terminals ….They

take part in the derivation , but are not part of the derived
sentence

T is a finite set of Terminals, i.e., the symbols that form the

strings of the language being defined

P is a finite set of Production Rules

S is the Start Symbol (One of the Non terminals )

In the example before :

S = Sentence
V = { Noun , Verb}
T = {Dog , Runs }
P
<Sentence>  <Noun> <Verb>
<Noun>  Dog
< Verb >  Runs
Example :
G = { S, V, P, T }

T = { Man, Book, Reads, The }

V = { N, V ,A}
S = S

P
S  ANVN
A  A | An | The
N  Man | Book
V  Reads
Derive string “ The Man Reads Book”
Derivation …. S  ANVN
A  A | An | The
S ANVN N  Man | Book
The NVN V  Reads
 The Man VN
The Man Reads Book
 The Man Reads N
 The Man Reads Book

Leftmost Derivation
Derivation …. S  ANVN
A  A | An | The
S ANVN
N  Man | Book
 ANV Book V  Reads
 AN Reads Book
 A Man Reads Book The Man Reads Book
 The Man Reads Book

Rightmost Derivation
∑ = { a , b }
L = { w € L | w begins with a }
L = { a , aa, ab, aab, aba, aaa, ………}

S -> aA
A -> aA | bA | €
For ‘a’
Derivation of ‘a’

S aA
S a

a A

€
 S -> aA
A -> aA | bA | €
For generating ‘aa’
 S

a A
Derivation of ‘aa’

S aA
a A aaA
aa

€
 S -> aA Derivation of ‘aba’

A -> aA | bA | € S aA
abA
For generating ‘aba’ abaA
aba
 S

a A

b A
In this grammar, the tuples are :

a A V = {S, A}
T = { a,b }
€ P
S= S
Parser :
Parser is a component of a Compiler or Interpreter that
breaks data into smaller elements

Parser takes the input in the form of a sequence of tokens

and builds a data structure in the form of a tree called
Parse tree

Deriving a Syntactic tree like structure from the stream of

tokens is called Parsing

Parsing is a process of determining if a string of tokens can

be generated by a grammar
Parse Tree :
The process of deriving a string using grammar rules is
called as derivation.

The geometrical representation of a derivation is

called as a parse tree or derivation tree.
Leftmost Derivation
The process of deriving a string by expanding the
leftmost non-terminal at each step is called
as leftmost derivation.

The geometrical representation of leftmost derivation

is called as a leftmost derivation tree.
Example 1 :
Consider the following example :
S → aB / bA
A → aS / bAA / a
B → bS / aBB / b

Let us consider a string

w = aaabbabbba

Now, let us derive the string w using leftmost derivation.

 S → aB / bA
A → aS / bAA / a
Leftmost Derivation - B → bS / aBB / b
 S   → aB
aaabbabbba 
→  aaBB                   (Using B → aBB)
→ aaaBBB                (Using B → aBB)
→ aaabBB                (Using B → b)
→ aaabbB                (Using B → b)
→ aaabbaBB            (Using B → aBB)
→ aaabbabB            (Using B → b)
→ aaabbabbS          (Using B → bS)
→ aaabbabbbA        (Using S → bA)
→ aaabbabbba         (Using A → a)
Rightmost Derivation.
The process of deriving a string by expanding the
rightmost non-terminal at each step is called
as rightmost derivation.

The geometrical representation of rightmost

derivation is called as a rightmost derivation tree.
Example 1 :
Consider the following grammar-
S → aB / bA
S → aS / bAA / a
B → bS / aBB / b
Let us consider a string w = aaabbabbba

Now, let us derive the string w using rightmost

derivation.
 S → aB / bA
A → aS / bAA / a
Rightmost Derivation- B → bS / aBB / b

aaabbabbba 
S   → aB
→  ab                   (Using B → b)

This is NOT what we want …………….

 S → aB / bA
A → aS / bAA / a
Rightmost Derivation- B → bS / aBB / b

aaabbabbba 
S   → aB
→  a bS                   (Using B → bS)
→ abbA                (Using S → bA)
→ abba                (Using A → a)

This is NOT what we want …………….

 S → aB / bA
A → aS / bAA / a
Rightmost Derivation- B → bS / aBB / b

S   → aB aaabbabbba 
→  aaBB                   (Using B → aBB)
→ aaBbS                (Using B → bS)
→ aaBbbA                (Using S → bA)
→ aaBbba                (Using A → a )
→ aaaBBbba                (Using B → aBB)
→ aaaBbbba                (Using B → b )
→ aaabSbbba               (Using B → bS)
→ aaabbAbbba               (Using S → bA)
→ aaabbaSbbba               (Using A → aS)

This is NOT what we want …………….

 S → aB / bA
A → aS / bAA / a
Rightmost Derivation- B → bS / aBB / b
 
aaabbabbba 
S   → aB
→  aaBB                    (Using B → aBB)
→ aaBaBB                 (Using B → aBB)
→ aaBaBbS               (Using B → bS)
→ aaBaBbbA             (Using S → bA)
→ aaBaBbba              (Using A → a)
→ aaBabbba              (Using B → b)
→ aaaBBabbba          (Using B → aBB)
→ aaaBbabbba          (Using B → b)
→ aaabbabbba           (Using B → b)
Parse Tree :
Properties Of Parse Tree- 
Root node of a parse tree is the start symbol of the grammar.
Each leaf node of a parse tree represents a terminal symbol.
Each interior node of a parse tree represents a non-terminal
symbol.
Parse tree is independent of the order in which the
productions are used during derivations.
 
Yield Of Parse Tree-
Concatenating the leaves of a parse tree from the left
produces a string of terminals.
This string of terminals is called as yield of a parse tree.
Example 2:
 
Consider the grammar-
S → bB / aA
A → b / bS / aAA
B → a / aS / bBB
 
For the string w = bbaababa, find-

1. Leftmost derivation
2. Rightmost derivation
3. Parse Tree
Solution :
 
1. Leftmost Derivation- 2. Rightmost Derivation-
   
S   → bB S   → bB
→ bbBB              (Using B → bBB) → bbBB              (Using B → bBB)
→ bbaB              (Using B → a) → bbBaS              (Using B → aS)
→ bbBabB            (Using S → bB)
→ bbaaS            (Using B → aS)
→ bbBabaS          (Using B → aS)
→ bbaabB          (Using S → bB) → bbBababB        (Using S → bB)
→ bbaabaS        (Using B → aS) → bbBababa        (Using B → a)
→ bbaababB      (Using S → bB) → bbaababa         (Using B → a)
→ bbaababa       (Using B → a)
Example 3 :
Consider the grammar-
S → A1B
A → 0A / ∈
B → 0B / 1B / ∈
 
For the string w = 00101, find-
Leftmost derivation
Rightmost derivation
Parse Tree
 
Solution-
 1. Leftmost Derivation- 2. Rightmost Derivation-
   
S   → A1B S   → A1B
→ 0A1B              (Using A → 0A) → A10B                (Using B → 0B)
→ 00A1B            (Using A → 0A) → A101B              (Using B → 1B)
→ 001B              (Using A → ∈) → A101                (Using B → ∈)
→ 0010B            (Using B → 0B) → 0A101              (Using A → 0A)
→ 00101B          (Using B → 1B) → 00A101            (Using A → 0A)
→ 00101             (Using B → ∈) → 00101               (Using A → ∈)
 
Parse Tree :
Example :
Let any set of production rules in a CFG be
X → X+X | X*X |X| a
over an alphabet {a}.

Show derivation for the string "a+a*a" 

 X → X+X
X X*X
XX
X a

The leftmost derivation for the string "a+a*a" may

be −
X → X+X
→ a+X
→ a + X*X
→ a+a*X
→ a+a*a
The stepwise derivation of the above string
is shown as below −
 X → X+X
X X*X
XX
X a
The rightmost derivation for the above
string "a+a*a" may be −
X → X*X
→ X*a
→ X+X*a
→ X+a*a
→ a+a*a
The stepwise derivation of the above string is shown as below −