04/08/23

Materials
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Density
Mass m
Density = ρ=
Volume V

1) What is the density of a piece of wood of volume 2m3 and

mass 1200kg?
2) Air only has a density of 1.3kgm-3. What is the mass of
0.2m3 of air?
3) Carbon dioxide is more dense and the same volume would
have a mass of 0.38kg. What is its density?
4) The mercury in a thermometer has a volume of 5x10-5m3.
If the density of the mercury is 13600kgm-3 what mass of
mercury is in the thermometer?
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Density examples
Object Mass/kg Volume/m3 Density/
kgm-3
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Floating recap
Whether or not an object will float depends on its DENSITY.
For example:

The metal block will ____ The wooden block will

because it is ______ ____ because it is
dense than water ______ dense than water
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Upthrust in Fluids
Any object that is placed in a liquid will
experience a force called upthrust. We can
use my principle to calculate how big that
upthrust is:

Archimedes,
287-212 BC

Upthrust = weight of fluid

displaced Weight Upthrust
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Example questions
A block of copper is suspended from a Newton meter. It is
then submerged in water. The block is a cube of sides
30cm. If copper has a density of 8960kgm-3 calculate:

1) The block’s volume

2) The block’s mass

3) The block’s weight (what the Newton meter reads before submerging)

4) The weight of the water the block displaces (i.e. the upthrust)

5) The reading on the Newton meter when the block is submerged.

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Recap question
This block of granite is a cube of sides 3cm and
density 2750kgm-3. The cube is suspended from a
Newton meter and placed in water. What will the
reading on the Newton meter be?
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Another recap question
This block of marble is a cube of
density 2500kgm-3. The cube is
suspended from a Newton meter and
placed in water. The reading on the
Newton meter decreased by 0.08N.
What is the size of the cube?
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Testing aerodynamics
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Laminar Flow vs Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow (seen here) is when “adjacent layers of a fluid do
not cross over each other”.
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Laminar Flow vs Turbulent Flow
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Terminal Velocity in a liquid
Consider a ball falling through a liquid:

Some questions to consider:

1) What forces are acting on

the ball?
2) How do those forces
change when the ball gets
faster?
3) Will the ball keep getting
faster? Explain your
answer in terms of forces
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Core Practical 4 - Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid can be defined as its “resistance to
flow”, i.e. a viscous fluid is one that would be thick and sticky
(like syrup).

Comparing viscosities

The viscosity of different

fluids can be compared by
using a viscometer or by
dropping a ball bearing
through the liquid:
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Stokes’ Law
When a sphere moves through a liquid the movement
of the liquid relative to the sphere is laminar. It’s as
though the particles of the fluid that are next to
the sphere “stick” to it and move along with it.
That’s quite interesting, but it would be even better
if it was mathematical…
George Stokes,
Consider a sphere of radius r moving with a 1819-1903
velocity v relative to a fluid with viscosity η:

Viscous drag F = 6πηrv

This is called Stokes’ Law,

after me. It ONLY works for
spheres moving at low speeds
(i.e. laminar flow) Viscous
drag
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Terminal Velocity
Consider a sphere falling through a fluid again:
What forces are acting on the ball?
Some facts:
1) The weight, obviously, stays constant
2) Upthrust = weight of fluid displaced, so
that stays constant after the sphere
becomes totally immersed
Weight
3) Viscous drag is proportional to velocity so W
it increases as the ball gets faster
Clearly, terminal velocity is reached when the
following condition is met:

W=U+F Upthrust Viscous

U drag F
Before this condition is met the following
applies:
FR = W – (U + F)
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Free body force diagrams
Draw free body force diagrams and write a
force equation for the following objects:
1) A ball bearing with a density just less
than water floating on its surface:

2) A more dense ball bearing

accelerating through a liquid:

3) The same ball bearing later

when it has reached terminal
velocity:
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Free body force diagrams
Draw free body force diagrams and write a
force equation for the following objects:
1) A ball bearing with low density that’s
accelerating towards the surface:

2) The same ball bearing when

it has reached terminal velocity
while rising:

3) The same ball bearing later

when it has reached the
surface:
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Some example questions
1) A steel ball-bearing of mass 1.3x10-4kg and radius 2.0mm is
allowed to fall through water until it reaches terminal velocity.
Calculate this terminal velocity if the viscosity of water is
1.1x10-3 N s m-2.

V=22.8 ms-1

2) Another steel ball-bearing of density 8000 kgm-3 and

radius 1.0mm is allowed to fall through water until it reaches
terminal velocity. Calculate this terminal velocity if the
viscosity of water is 1.1x10-3 N s m-2.

V=13.9 ms-1
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Force and Extension
Consider a mass on a spring:
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Force-Extension Graph for a spring
Force/N
The “elastic limit”

The “limit of
proportionality”
Hooke’s Law:
Force = spring constant x extension
F=kΔx

Hooke’s Law is Q. How would you

obeyed here – determine the spring
“elasticity” constant for this spring?

Extension/mm
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Questions on the Spring Constant
1) Estimate the spring constant of a 10N Newton
meter

2) Estimate the spring constant of the suspension on

a car
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Force and Extension
Consider a mass on a spring:

Putting a mass on a spring

will extend it. Keep putting
the masses on and the spring
will stretch.
Does this happen to other
materials?
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Force-Extension Graph for a wire
Force/N
The “elastic limit”

The “yield
point”
The “plastic
region”

“Elastic deformation” – when the material

returns to its original shape
“Plastic deformation” – when the material
does NOT return to its original shape

“Permanent deformation”
Extension/mm
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Force-Extension Graph for rubber
Force/N

Extension/mm
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Force-Extension Graph for steel
Force
/N High carbon steel

80

60

40 Mild steel

20

0
0.5 1.0 1.5 Extension/cm
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Work done recap
Work done (in joules) is simply the force needed to move an
object multiplied by the distance moved in the direction of the
force:

ΔW
ΔW = FΔs

F Δs
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Gravitational Potential Energy recap
To work out how much gravitational potential energy
(GPE) an object gains when it is lifted up we would use
the simple equation…

GPE = Weight x Change in height

(Joules) (newtons) (metres)

(Remember - W=mg) GPE

mg H
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Kinetic energy recap
Any object that moves will have kinetic energy.

The amount of kinetic energy an object has can be found using

the formula:

Kinetic energy = ½ x mass x velocity squared

in J in kg in m/s

Ek = ½ mv2
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Elastic Strain Energy
Force
/N Eel = ½FΔx

AFTER the limit of proportionality find the stored

2
EPE by calculating the area under the graph

0
10 20 30 40
Extension/mm
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Elastic Strain Energy
Force
/N

How much elastic

4 potential energy (Eel) is
stored in this spring?
2

0
10 20 30 40
Extension/mm
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Elastic Strain Energy
Force
/N

6 Q. This force-extension graph was obtained for a spring.

The spring was stretched to 40mm and then used to fire
a 20g golf ball upwards.
4 How fast will it move when it has left the spring?
How far would the ball go up?
2 What assumptions have you made?

0
10 20 30 40
Extension/mm
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Practical – Using Catapults
Task – to find out (mathematically) how far you would stretch
a rubber band in order for it to “just” reach the ceiling and
then test your theory!
Step 1 – Obtain an F-Δs graph for your rubber band

Step 2 – Calculate the total stored elastic potential energy at

different extensions
Step 3 – Choose your rubber to fire and measure its mass

Step 4 – Use a calculation to predict how far up the object

will go:
Elastic potential energy = Gravitational potential energy
EPE = mgh
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A Recap Question
Force
/N

20

15 A spring was stretched in order to obtain this

force-extension graph. It is then extended by
20cm and used to fire a 250g ball vertically into
the air.
10
1.How fast will the ball be moving when it leaves
the spring?
5 2.How far would the ball go up?
3.What assumptions have you made?
0
10 20 30 40
Extension/cm
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Stress and Strain
“Stress” means how much force per unit area a material is
having put on it.

Stress = force σ=F

cross-sectional area A

“Strain” means how much the material extends per unit length.

Strain = extension ε = Δl
original length l
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The Young Modulus
The Young Modulus for a material is defined as the following:
Young modulus = stress
strain

From the last slide: σ=F and ε = Δl

A l
Young modulus = Fl
Therefore:
AΔl
Q. A steel wire of length 3m and diameter 0.3mm is extended by a
force of 50N. The wire extends by 2mm. Calculate:
1) The applied stress
2) The strain on the wire
3) The Young Modulus of the steel
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Stress-Strain Graph for a wire
Stress/MPa
The “elastic limit”
The limit of
200
proportionality The ultimate tensile stress (“UTS”)

160 The “yield

stress/point”

120

80 The Hooke’s Law region

40

0
0.5 1.0 10 20 30
Strain/%
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Force and compression
Consider some springs:

The force-compression and stress-strain

graphs for objects like these can be
determined and plotted.

Example questions:
1) A stiff spring has a spring constant of 10Nm-1. How
much will it compress by if a force of 20N is applied to it?
2) Estimate the stress on the lower bones in your leg when
you are standing up.
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Micrometers
Micrometers are more accurate and can be used to measure
the width or depth of an object to an accuracy of 0.01mm…
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Core Practical 5 – Determining Young Modulus
Force Extension Stress Strain Diameter of wire/mm
/N /mm /107 Pa /%
1
2
3
Ave
Area/m2

Stress/107 Pa

Strain/%
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Stress-Strain graphs
The following values of
force and extension for Force Extension Stress Strain
a copper wire of mean /N /mm /Pa /%
diameter 0.5mm and
0 0
length 3.0m were
found: 5.0 0.5
10.0 1.0
1) Calculate the 15.0 1.5
missing values
20.0 2.0
2) Plot a graph of 25.0 2.5
stress against strain
30.0 3.0
3) Determine the
35.0 4.0
Young modulus, yield
stress and UTS of 40.0 6.0
copper. 35.0 300
30.0 750
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Model Stress-Strain graphs
Stress/MPa
High carbon steel
500
The “breaking stress”
400
Mild steel
300

200
Copper

100

0
0.5 1.0 10 20 30
Strain/%