Modals

• Passive Voice
Ability
• He can read a book. • S +MODAL + BE + Vpast participle +By Performer
• She could paint that picture.
Advice • A book can be read by him.
• That picture could be painted by her.
• I should feed the animals.
• They ought to wash the car.
• The animals should be fed by me.
• We had better clean the yard.
• The car ought to be washed by them.
Necessity • The yard had better be cleaned by us.
• You must wash your clothes.
• They have to clean the kitchen. • Your clothes must be washed by you.
• The kitchen has to be cleaned by them.
Not necessary
• He doesnt have to cook dinner.
• Dinner doesnt have to be cooked by him.
Prohibition
• The students must not use the calculator. • The calculator must not be used by the students.
A cleft sentence is a sentence in which some part is moved from its normal position into a
different place to give it more emphasis . 
• WH-Clause + BE + EMPHASISED WORD/PHRASE
• . A person’s smile is really important to me.
• What’s really important to me is a person’s smile.
• I always notice a person's hands.
• What I always notice is a person’s hands.
• I didn`t like the end of the movie
• What I didn't like was the end of the movie.

• A book he'd read changed his mind  .

• What changed his mind was a book he'd read.
 
Parallel Writing
Parallel writing is used to balance words in pairs or in a series, making the
sentence clearer and easier to read.
When listing words in a series, use consistent parts of speech: nouns,
adjectives, adverbs.
• I am tired, hungry, and frustrated. (adjectives)
• I ran up the hill, down the road, and around the corner. (phrases)
• He set down his easel, he placed his paints on a rock, and he fell to the
ground. (clauses)
• I like to hunt, to fish, and hiking. (not parallel)
• I like to hunt, to fish, and to hike. (parallel)
• I like hunting, fishing, and hiking. (parallel)
• Finished actions
Simple past
• I watched the movie yesterday.
Present perfect
• I have already watched the movie.
(already, yet, ever, since, before ,three times…)
Past perfect

• I had watched the movie when I read the book.

Present perfect continuous

• You have been crying. Your eyes are red.

Unfinished actions

Past continuous

I was watching the movie at 7:00.

Present perfect and present perfect continuous (for-since)

I have watched the movie for 1 hour

I have watched the movie since 3:00.

I have been watching the movie since 3:00.

Noun clauses
• Pepito is funny.
• I love Pepito.
• We were talking about Pepito.
• The most importan thing is Pepito.
What you said =clause
• What you said is funny.
• I love what you said .
• We were talking about what you said .
• The most importan thing is what you said .

What time is it? I wonder what time it is. (embedded questions)

Are you tired ? He asked me if i was tied. (reported questions)
 Expresing regrets about the past
• I ate two boxes of chocolate, and I had a stomachache.
• He didn`t study, so he failed the exam.
Wish + past perfect
I wish I hadn`t eaten two boxes of chocolate.
He wishes he had studied.

Should have +Vpast participle /ought to have +V past participle

I shouldn`t have eaten two boxes of chocolate.
He ought to have studied.

If only+ past perfect (strong regret)

If only I hadn`t eaten two boxes of chocolate.
If only he had studied.

If only I hadn`t eaten two boxes of chocolate, I wouldn`t have had a stomachache.
If only he had studied , he wouldn`t have failed the exam.
• S +will have +V past participle

• First I will buy a house , then I will adopt 3 dogs.

• By the time I adopt 3 dogs, I will have bought a house.

• By next month, I will have finished the class.

• By the time she gets married, she will have gotten a job.
S+hope/expect/plan +to have+ Vpast
participle
• First I will buy a house , then I • By the time I adopt 3 dogs, I plan
will adopt 3 dogs. to have bought a house.
• By the time I adopt 3 dogs, I will
have bought a house. • By next month, I expect to have
finished the class.
• By next month, I will have finished
the class. • By the time she gets married, she
hopes to have gotten a job
• By the time she gets married, she
will have gotten a job
• S + will be + Ving
• S +be going to be +Ving
• Tomorrow at 9:00, I will be taking a class.
• She is going to be eating lunch at this time tomorrow.
Questions
• Will you be taking a class? Yes, I will
• Is she going to be eating lunch? Yes, she is?
• S + will have been + Ving.
• By november, I will have been living here for 12 years.

• When he finishes the CBA , he will have been studying English for 1 year.

• By the time she finishes the proyect , she will have been working for 14
hours.
Organizing ideas (Benefits and problems)
Fast food restaurants

1 Paragraph
Benefits: It is fast and easy to eat. It is cheap. It is easy to find.

Problems: You don really enjoy the food. It is not made with good quality products.

2 Paragraphs
Paragreph 1 :Benefits It is fast and easy to eat. It is cheap. It is easy to find.

Paragraph 2 : Problems You don really enjoy the food. It is not made with good quality products.

More than two paragraphs

Paragraph 1: Price It is cheap. It is not made with good quality products.
Paragraph 2: Fast - It is fast and easy to eat. You don really enjoy the food
Paragraph 3: …
Inverted form
2. Were I you ….
3. Had they realized..
4. Were I your teacher…
5. Should you change…
6. She should have gotten the job had she been …
Compare:
• Like Jay, Max likes to dress up.
• Jay likes to dress up. Similarly, Max
think it is important to dress well.
• Jay likes to dress up. Likewise, Max
likes to dress up, too.
• Jay likes to dress up. Max does as well.
• Jay doesn’t like to dress casually. Max
doesn’t either.
Contrast:
• Unlike Jay, Dave prefers to dress casually.
• Jay likes to dress up. In contrast, Dave prefers to dress down.
• Jay likes to dress up. However, Dave prefers to dress
casually.
• Jay like to dress up, whereas Dave prefers to dress casually.
• A few Count • A Little Non –count
• I know a few people. (some) • I have a little money. (some)
• Few count • Little Non - count
• I know few people. ( not enough) • I have little money ( not enough)
• 1. I have a few / a few of designer clothes.
• 2. Just a few / a few of my clothes are formal.
• 3. Most of / Most employees dress down on Fridays.
• 4. Most of / Most our employees dress down on Fridays.
• 5. Please take both of / both dresses to the drycleaners.
• 6. Both / Both of these dresses are expensive.
• 7. Each / Each of school has its own rules.
 I enjoy dancing . • I object to Maria´s being late.
I enjoy Pepito´s dancing.
• I object to Maria being late. (informal)
We talked about dancing.
We talked about Pepito´s dancing. • He didn`t appreciate our chatting in
class.
Dancing is great.
Pepito´s dancing is great. • He didn`t appreciate us chatting in
class. (informal)
What I don’t want is being sad.
What I don´t want is his being sad.
• Either …or Not only …but also
• He cooks dinner. Or she cooks dinner.
• Either he or she cooks dinner. • She is not only beautiful but also intelligent.
• She can have tea. Or she can have coffee. • She speaks English not only fluently but also naturally.
• She can have either tea or coffee. • I like not only apple but also banana.
• He washes the clothes himself. Or he asks her to wash them.
• I not only sing well but also dance perfectly
• He either washes the clothes himself or asks her to
wash them.
• Not only does he speak English but also he speaks Spanish.
Neither …not
• Not only was it raining all day at the wedding but also the
• Neither the blue one nor the red is available in size 4. band was late.
•   I will neither call you nor send you a message before • Not only is he handsome but also he is intelligent.
midday.
• Marco has a mustache, and Omar does too. • Marco is wearing a hat, and Omar is too.
• Marco has a mustache, and so does Omar • Marco is wearing a hat, and so is Omar.
• Ivan isn't wearing a hat, and Marco isn´t
• Omar doesn't have a mustache, and Marco doesn’t
either.
either.
• Ivan isn't wearing a hat, and neither is
• Omar doesn't have a mustache, and neither does Marco.
Marco.
 Adjective Vs Adverbs
•  adjective is a word or set of words
that modifies (i.e., describes) a noun or • An adverb is a word or set of words that
pronoun. Adjectives may come before the modifies verbs( action Verbs), adjectives,
word they modify. or other adverbs
Examples: Examples:
• That is a cute puppy.
She likes a high school senior.
• He is a slow speaker.
He speaks slowly (tells how)
Adjectives may also follow the word they
modify
* After non action verbs(be. Look . Seem) • He is a extremely slow speaker.( adjective)
Examples:

That puppy looks cute. • He speaks extremely slowly.( adverb)

The technology is state-of-the-art.
• Many adverbs end in -ly, but many do not. • The word good is an adjective, whose
• Generally, if a word can have -ly added to its adverb equivalent is well.
adjective form, place it there to form an • Examples:
adverb.
You did a good job.
• Examples: Good describes the job.
She thinks quick/quickly.
How does she think? Quickly.
You did the job well.
She is a quick/quickly thinker. Well answers how.
Quick is an adjective describing thinker, so no -
ly is attached. You smell good today.
Good describes your fragrance, not how
She thinks fast/fastly. you smell with your nose, so using the
Fast answers the question how, so it is an
adverb. But fast never has -ly attached to it.
adjective is correct.

We performed bad/badly. You smell well for someone with a cold.

Badly describes how we performed, so -ly is You are actively smelling with your nose
added. here, so use the adverb.
• If it weren't for (someone or
something)
• If someone or something hadn't  if it hadn't been for (someone or
helped, intervened, or affected t something)
he situation in some way. 
If someone or something hadn't helped, intervene
• The phrase is always followed by  d, or affected the situation in some way.
an explanation of how things wo  The phrase is always followed by an explanation
uld have turned out different wit  of how things would have turned out differently
hout someone or something. without someone or something.
Regret
• Regret
Relief

• Relief
 Passive reporting structures

Meaning and use • Form

• This structure is used to report • 1) A passive reporting structure can
information in a formal style or to take this form:
report facts. • It + passive reporting verb + that-
clause
• Passive structures hide the source
of the information. This is because • It + Verb BE + Vpast Part+ that-clause
• a) it is obvious
• b) the source is unimportant or is • For example:
'people in general', or • It is known that the sky is blue
• c) the source is unknown. • It is known that the criminal escaped
• It Is thought that chocolate is delicious
 • RULE 1
• What are the subject and verb in the first sentence?
Horseshoes are a symbol of good luck. (S = beliefs; V = are)
• What is the subject? • What words separate them?
(horseshoes) (in a supernatural event)
• What are the subject and verb in the second
• What is the verb? sentence?
(are) (S = The smart thing to do; V = is)
• Do the subject and verb agree? • What words separate them?
(yes) (when someone tells you something is unlucky)
Rule 2:
Superstitions about the horseshoe has been
• What is the subject in this sentence?
passed down for many generations.
(There are two subjects: a black cat, a broken mirror.)
• What is the subject?
Rule 3: What is the subject in this sentence?
(superstitions) (my sister)
• What is the verb? • What are the verbs?
(has been passed down) (believes, avoids, wears)
• Rule 4: What is the subject in this sentence?
• Do the subject and verb agree?
(Nobody)
(no) • Rule 5: 1 .what noun does some refer to?
• Correct the mistake. (salt)
(have been passed down instead of has been • 2., what noun does some refer to?
passed down) (superstitions)
 Phrasal verbs
Verb + Particle SEPARABLE (PICK sth UP)
Pick Up
Get Up They picked up the childen.
Turn On
They picked the children up.
They picked them up.
INSEPARABLE ( RUN INTO s.o.) They picked up them.

I ran into pepito in the school .

I ran into him in the school.
ALWAYS SEPARATED ( START sth OVER)*
I ran Pepito into in the school.
I ran him into in the school. I started the essay over.
I started it over.
INTRANSITIVE (HOLD ON)
I started over it .
He was busy so I had to hold on. I started over the essay
INCREASING

a) …….er and …….er DECREASING

Examples: a) Fewer and fewer
She is getting closer and closer of her mother. It is used with countable nouns.
By the end of the twentieth century, couples were Example:
waiting longer and longer to marry. Fewer and fewer children are leaving school.
b) more and more b) Less and less
Examples: It is used with uncountable nouns and adjectives.
It’s becoming more and more difficult. Example:
He is going more and more slowly. He needs less and less money everyday.
S+used to +V base form
• I used to live in Chicago, but now I live
in Tokyo. • S+didn`t use to Vbase form
• INCORRECT: • He didn`t use to have a car.
I used to living in Chicago. • She didn`t use to be tall.
I used to lived in Chicago.
Used to expresses the habitual past or an
habit in the past .
I used to live in Finland, but now I live in • Did +S+use to +Vbase form?
France.
• Did you use to have a cat?
I used to work in this company.
• Yes, I did. No, I didnt.
I used to sit in the back of the classroom,
but now I prefer to sit in the front row. • Where did you use to live?
• What did he use to eat?
S + would +Vbase form -Past action

I used to walk to school when I was a kid.

I would walk to school when I was a kid.
I used to be shy. • Am i used to eating
I would be shy. pizza?
• Was I used to eating
I used to eat pizza. Past routine pizza?
S+ be used to+(Ving/noun) be accustomed
I am used to eating pizza.
• Did I get used to eating
I was used to pizza. pizza?
• Will I get used to Pizza?
S+ be used to+(Ving/noun) get accustomed
I got used to eating pizza.
I will get used to pizza.
Past continuous+ always
• I was always walking to school.
• They were always helping animals.
• My mom was always cooking for us.
 Uses of would
• Polite request • Past routine (action )= used to
Would you lend me 100 Sus? I would walk to school .
Would you please open the door? He would eat Candy when he was a kid.

• Future in the past

I was going to be an actor.
• Unreal conditionals ( present –Past) I thought I would be an actor.
If he were here , we would ask him.
• Indirect speeech for will.
If you had studied, you wouldn’t have failed “I will travel to La Paz.”
the exam He said he would travel to La paz.