ADDIS ABABA UNVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS
APPLIED MATHEMATICS I(MATH 1041)

SOLOMON MOLLA

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 Chapter One :

VECTORS AND VECTOR

SPACES

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1. Scalar and Vectors
Definitions:
• A scalar is a physical quantity that is described by its magnitude alone.
For example, temperature, mass, length, time , work done and speed are
scalars because they are completely described by a number that tells "how
much"-say a temperature of 20°C, a length of 5 cm, or a speed of 10 m/s.
• A vector is a physical quantity that is described using both magnitude and
its direction.

For instance, velocity, displacement, force and Torque are some examples
of vectors.
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  (2)
Definitions (Cartesian product of two sets)
• Let A and B be two non empty set, then the Cartesian products of A and B defined as

Remarks:
1. Thus we have

• The set of ordered pairs of real numbers called Cartesian coordinate plane (Real plane) .

2. A vector in (plane) represented by a point vector

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 Cont.
3. Vectors in

 Thus, the vector in (Space) represented by a point vector

Example 1. plot the following vectors in space P(1,3,2) and Q(-1,3,-2)

Solution :-
4. The distance b/n P(x,y,z)
(a) from xy-plane is
(b) from yz-plane is
(c) from xz-plane is
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5. The distance b/n the point 6. The distance b/n the point P(x,y,z) to
P(x,y,z) to is
(a) X-axis is

(b) Y-axis is 6. The distance b/n the point P(x,y,z) to the

origin is
(c) Z-axis is

Example 2: Find the distance of the

point vector P(-1,2,4) from

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7) There is a one-to-one correspondence b/n points in a plane/space to

a vector in plane/space.(i.e Every point is a vector in Rectangular

representation)

8) Vector in n-dimensional space represented in rectangular form as

or

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A vector in the plane can be described as; (row vector) ,
where
or
(column vector), .
Similarly, a vector in the space can be described as a triple of
numbers

or
where

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Geometrical Vector representation
i) A vector in (space ) is Positioned so its initial point is at the origin
and terminal at a point P(x,y,z).i.e V = OP
z

y
x

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Definitions:
1. A located vector is a vector ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
𝐴𝐵ሬ
Ԧ defined as an arrow whose initial point is at point A
and whose terminal point is at B.

b2 B(b1,b2)

a2
A(a1,a2)

a1 b1 X

(b1 , b2 )  (a1  (b1  a1 )), (a 2  (b 2 a 2 ))

 (a1 , a 2 )  (b1  a1 ,b 2 a 2 )
𝑏1 = 𝑎1 + ሺ𝑏1 − 𝑎1 ሻ
 (a1 , a 2 )  [(b1 ,b 2 )  (a1 , a 2 )]
B  A  ( B  A)
𝑏2 = 𝑎2 + ሺ𝑏2 − 𝑎2 ሻ
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 iii) . EQUAL (OR EQUIVALENT) VECTORS

Example 3: Find the located vector where A(4,0,-2)

and B(6,-2,4).
Solution :-

 Two vectors are said to be Equal iff they have the same
magnitude and direction.
Let , then

 An Equivalent vectors have the same magnitude only.

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 3. Vector addition and Scalar multiplication
Ԧ= ሺ
Definition: For any two vectors 𝑢
ሬ 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ሻ in ℝ2 , we define their sum to
𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ሻ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧ= ሺ
be Ԧ+ 𝑣Ԧ= ሺ
𝑢
ሬ 𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 ሻ.
Ԧ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧby ሬ
Geometrically, if we represent the two vectors 𝑢
ሬ ሬሬ
ሬ
𝐴𝐵ሬ
Ԧ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐶
ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬ
Ԧ

Ԧ+ 𝑣Ԧis represented byሬ

respectively, then 𝑢
ሬ ሬሬ
ሬ
𝐴𝐶ሬ
ሬԦ, as shown in the diagram below:

C
U+V
V

A
B
U

AB  BC  AC
a) The Triangular Law

D
C

V U+V = V+U
V

A B
U

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b) The Parallelogram Law
REMARK : Scalar Multiple of a Vector
1. The vector is parallel to every vector in the same
dimension, since it can be expressed as the scalar
multiple .
2. The zero vectors have no natural direction ,so we will
agree that it can be assigned any direction that is
convenient for the problem at hand.
In other words, the two vectors and are said to be parallel,
denoted by if there exists a scalar c such that.
Definition: For any we define as .

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Addition of vectors on the coordinate plane

Let then
.

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Position vector is a vector whose initial point is at the
origin.
Definition (Parallel / collinear Vectors)
Definition Two non – zero vectors of the same dimension
are said to be parallel or, alternatively, collinear if at least
one of the vectors is a scalar multiple of the other. If one
of the vectors is a positive scalar multiple of the other,
then the vectors are said to have the same direction, and if
one of them is a negative scalar multiple of the other, then
the vectors are said to have opposite directions.

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Vector Subtraction:The negative of a vector , denoted
by , is the vector that has thesame length as v but is
oppositely directed (Figure 1.1.9a ), and the difference of
v from w,denoted by , is taken to be the sum .

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Example: Provided that U =(-1,0,1) and V= (2,-1,5 ) , find
each of the following vectors
a) U + V b) 2U c) V -2U
Solution: a)

b)
c)

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Exercise:- Let A and B be points with position vectors a and b

respectively relative to a fixed origin “o”.

a) Find in terms of a and b.

b) If P is the mid-point of AB, then find

c) Show that

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Properties of Vector addition & Scalar Multiplication
ሬሬԦbe vectors in ℝ2 and 𝑐 & 𝑚 are scalars. Then:
Let 𝑢ሬԦ, 𝑣Ԧand 𝑤
a) 𝑢ሬԦ+ 𝑣Ԧ ∈ ℝ2
b) 𝑢ሬԦ+ 𝑣Ԧ= 𝑣Ԧ+ 𝑢ሬԦ
c) 𝑢ሬԦ+ ሬ
0Ԧ= ሬ
0Ԧ+ 𝑢ሬԦ= 𝑢ሬԦ, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 = ሺ0,0ሻ ∈ ℝ2 .
d) There exists 𝑤 ∈ ℝ2 such that 𝑢ሬԦ+ 𝑤
ሬሬԦ= 0 for every 𝑢 ∈ ℝ2 .
e) 𝑢ሬԦ+ ሺ𝑣Ԧ+ 𝑤
ሬሬԦሻ = ሺ𝑢ሬԦ+ 𝑣Ԧሻ+ 𝑤
ሬሬԦ
f) 𝑐 ሺ𝑚 𝑢ሬԦሻ = ሺ𝑐𝑚ሻ𝑢ሬԦ
g) ሺ𝑐 + 𝑚ሻ𝑢ሬԦ= 𝑐𝑢ሬԦ+ 𝑚𝑢ሬԦ
h) 1. 𝑢ሬԦ= 𝑢ሬԦ 19
Remark: The properties described above also hold true for vectors in ℝ3 , where
0 = ሺ0,0,0ሻ∈ ℝ3 , replaces the zero vector 0 in ℝ2 .
SUMS OF THREE OR MORE VECTORS

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Definition 1.1.8 A vector w in Rn is said to be a linear combination.. of the vectors
V1, V2, … , Vk in Rn if w can be expressed in the form W = c1 v1 + c2v2 + . . . + ckvK
The scalars c1, c2, ... , ck are called the coefficients in the linear combination. In the case
where k = 1, Formula (14) becomes w = c1 v1, so to say that w is a linear combination of v1
is the same as saying that w is a scalar multiple of v1.
Example : Provided that X= (-1 , -2 , -2 ) , U = (0 ,1 ,4) , V = (-1 , 1 ,2) and W = (3 ,1 ,2) in
R3 find scalars a , b and c such that X = a U + b V + c W
SOLUTION (-1 , -2 , -2 ) = a (0, 1 ,4) + b ( -1 ,1 ,2 ) + c (3 , 1 ,2 )
= (-b +3c , a +b +c , 4a +2b +2c )
you can equate corresponding components so that they form the system of three linear
equations as shown below.
-b +3c = -1
a +b +c = - 2
,4a +2b +2c = -2
Answer a =1 ,b= - 2 and c = -1
Try using vector addition and scalar multiplication to check this result.
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 Dot (Scalar) product, Magnitude of a vector, Angle between two
Vectors, Orthogonal Projection, Direction angles and direction
cosines.
Dot (Scalar) Product

Definition: Let be a vector in. Then the magnitude (norm)

of , denoted by is defined by:

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 ԡ𝑣Ԧԡ2 = ሺ𝑂𝑅 ሻ2 + ሺ𝑃𝑅 ሻ2 = (𝑂𝑄)2 + (𝑄𝑅)2 + (𝑃𝑅)2

ԡ𝑣Ԧԡ= ඥ𝑣12 + 𝑣22 + 𝑣32

Similarly, for a vector 𝑣Ԧ= ሺ𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ሻ ∈ ℝ2 , its norm is given by

ԡ𝑣Ԧԡ= ඥ𝑣12 + 𝑣22

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Examples: a) If 𝑣Ԧ= ሺ−1,4,3ሻ, then find ԡ𝑣Ԧԡ.
b) If ԡ𝑢
Ԧԡ= 6, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥 such that𝑢
ሬ Ԧ= ሺ−1, 𝑥, 5ሻ.
ሬ
Remarks: (i) ԡ𝑣Ԧԡ≠ 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑣Ԧ≠ 0
(ii) ԡ𝑣Ԧԡ= ԡ−𝑣Ԧԡ.
Theorem: If 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, thenԡ𝑐 𝑣Ԧԡ= ȁ𝑐 ȁ ԡ𝑣Ԧԡ.
Proof: suppose that 𝑣 ∈ 𝑅 𝑛 then
ԡ𝑐 𝑣Ԧԡ= ඥሺ𝑐𝑣1 ሻ2 + ሺ𝑐𝑣2 ሻ2 + ⋯ + ሺ𝑐𝑣𝑘 ሻ2

= ඥ𝑐 2 [ሺ𝑣1 ሻ2 + ሺ𝑣2 ሻ2 + ⋯ + ሺ𝑣𝑘 ሻ2 ]

= ȁ𝑐 ȁ ԡ𝑣ԡ
Definition (Unit Vector)
Ԧsatisfying ԡ𝑢
Any vector 𝑢
ሬ Ԧԡ= 1 is called a unit vector.
ሬ
1 −1
Examples: The vectors ሺ0,1ሻ, ሺ−1,0ሻ, ቀ , ቁ , ሺ1,0,0ሻare examples of unit vectors.
ξ2 ξ2

N.B: 1. All unit vectors in ℝ2 are of the form ሺcos 𝜃 , sin 𝜃 ሻ, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 ∈ ℝ.
2. For any non-zero vector 𝑣Ԧ, the unit vector 𝑢
ො corresponding to 𝑣Ԧin the
direction of 𝑣Ԧcan be obtained as:
ሬ
Ԧ
𝑉
𝑢
ො = ฮ𝑉ሬԦฮ 24
Example:- Find the unit vector in the direction of u=2i-j-2k.
Solution:-

Example l:- let u and v be parallel vectors such that u=2i-j-2k and
IIvII=12, then find v.
Solution:-

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 3. For two points 𝑃ሺ𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ሻ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 ሺ𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ሻon the plane ℝ2 , we
calculate the distance 𝑑 ሺΡ, 𝑄 ሻbetween the two points, as :
ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
ሬԦฮ = ඥሺ𝑣1 − 𝑢1 ሻ2 + ሺ𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ሻ2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ሬ
𝑑 ሺΡ, 𝑄ሻ = ฮΡ𝑄 ሬሬ
ሬ
ሬԦis the vector with initial
Ρ𝑄

point P and terminal point Q, ሬ

ሬሬ
ሬ
ሬԦ = ሺ𝑣1 − 𝑢1 , 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 ሻ.
Ρ𝑄
4. Distance between two vectors ca n be vie we d a s the le ngth of U -V whe re
𝑈 = ሺ𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ሻ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉 = ሺ𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ሻ

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 The Dot Product (or Scalar Product)
Definition: Suppose that 𝑢ሬԦ= ሺ𝑢1 , 𝑢2 ሻ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧ= ሺ𝑣1 , 𝑣2 ሻare vectors in ℝ2 , and that 𝜃 ∈ ሾ0, 𝜋ሿ
represents the angle between them. We define the dot product of 𝑢ሬԦ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉ሬԦdenoted by 𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑣Ԧ
by:
𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑣Ԧ= 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2
Or alternatively, we write
ԡ𝑢ሬԦԡ ԡ𝑣Ԧԡcos 𝜃, 𝑖𝑓 𝑢ሬԦ≠ 0 & 𝑣Ԧ≠ 0
𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑣Ԧ= ቊ
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑢ሬԦ= 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑣Ԧ= 0
Thus ԡ𝑢ሬԦԡ ԡ𝑣Ԧԡcos 𝜃 = 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 , for non – zero vector 𝑢ሬԦ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧ𝑖𝑛 ℝ2 .
Similarly, if 𝑢ሬԦ= ሺ𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 ሻ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧ= ሺ𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 ሻare vectors in ℝ3 , we define 𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑣Ԧas bellow:

𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑣Ԧ= 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 + 𝑢3 𝑣3

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Remark: The dot product of two vectors is a scalar quantity,
and its value is maximum when 𝜃 = 0° and minimum if 𝜃 = 180° 𝑜𝑟 𝜋 radians.
Example: If ሬሬ𝑢Ԧ= 𝑖 − 2𝑗 + 3𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧ= ((((‫ۃ‬0,1,−5(((((‫ۄ‬
, then find:
a) 𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑣Ԧ b) 𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑢ሬԦ c) ሺ𝑢ሬԦ+ 𝑣Ԧሻ∙ 𝑣Ԧ
Properties of the dot product
If 𝑢ሬԦ,𝑣Ԧ,𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤ሬԦare vectors in the same dimension, and 𝑐 ∈ ℜ, then:
1. 𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑢ሬԦ= ԡ𝑢ሬԦԡ2 4. 0 ∙ 𝑢ሬԦ= 0
2. 𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑣Ԧ= 𝑣Ԧ∙ 𝑢ሬԦ 5. ሺ𝑐 𝑢ሬԦሻ∙ 𝑣Ԧ= 𝑐 ሺ𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑣Ԧሻ= 𝑣Ԧ∙ ሺ𝑐 𝑢ሬԦሻ
3. 𝑢ሬԦ∙ ሺ𝑣Ԧ+ 𝑤ሬԦሻ= 𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑣Ԧ+ 𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑤ሬԦ 6. 𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑢ሬԦ≥ 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑢ሬԦ∙ 𝑢ሬԦ= 0 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑢ሬԦ= 0.
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Angle between two vectors
If 𝜃 is the angle between two non – zero vectors 𝑢
ሬ
Ԧ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧ, then,
the angle between the two vectors can be obtained by:
𝑢ሬ
Ԧ∙𝑣
ሬ
Ԧ ሬ
𝑢Ԧ∙𝑣
ሬ
Ԧ
cos 𝜃 = ԡ𝑢
Ԧԡԡ𝑣
ሬ Ԧԡ
ሬ
⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ቀԡሬԦԡԡሬԦԡቁ, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 ∈ ሾ0, 𝜋ሿ
.
𝑢 𝑣

Ԧ= ((((‫ۃ‬
Example: Find the angle between the vectors 𝑢
ሬ 1,0, −1(((((‫ۄ‬
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧ= ሺ1,1,0ሻ.
Solution: Let 𝜃 be the angle between the two vectors:
ሬ
𝑢Ԧ∙𝑣
ሬ
Ԧ 1 1 −1 1 𝜋
Then cos 𝜃 = ԡ𝑢
ሬԦԡԡ𝑣 Ԧԡ
ሬ
= 2∙ 2 = 2 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 ቀ2ቁ= 3
ξ ξ

Definition: Two non – zero 𝑢

ሬ
Ԧ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧ are said to be orthogonal
𝜋
(perpendicular) iff 𝑢
ሬ
Ԧ∙ 𝑣Ԧ= 0, i.e, if 𝜃 = .
2

Example: Find the value (s) of x such that the vectors 𝐴 = ሺ1 ,4, 3ሻ𝑎𝑛𝑑
Β = ሺ𝑥, −1, 2ሻare orthogonal.
Definition: If P and Q are points in 2 or 3 spaces, the distance between P
and Q, denoted by ԡΡ − 𝑄 ԡis given by ԡΡ − 𝑄 ԡ= ඥሺΡ − 𝑄 ሻ. ሺΡ − 𝑄 ሻ 29
Example:- let u,v and w are vectors in space such that u+v+w=0, IIuII=3,
IIvII=5 and IIwII=7, then find the angle b/n u and v.
Solution:-
Example:- If u and v are unit vectors make an angle of b/n them,
then find II3u+vII.

Exercise 2: Use vector property only,

Show that altitudes of the triangle are concurrent.

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 Ԧ& 𝑣Ԧin space, ԡ𝑢
Theorem: Given two vectors 𝑢
ሬ Ԧ+ 𝑣Ԧԡ= ԡ𝑢
ሬ Ԧ− 𝑣Ԧԡiff
ሬ
𝑢
ሬ
Ԧ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧare orthogonal vectors.
Proof : (⤏) Given ԡ𝑢
Ԧ+ 𝑣Ԧԡ= ԡ𝑢
ሬ Ԧ− 𝑣Ԧԡ
ሬ
WTS 𝑢
ሬ
Ԧ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧare orthogonal
Ԧ+ 𝑣Ԧԡ2 = ሺ
ԡ𝑢
ሬ 𝑢 + 𝑣 ሻ∙ (𝑢 + 𝑣)
=ԡ𝑢 ԡ2 + 2𝑢. 𝑣 + ԡ𝑣 ԡ2
Ԧ− 𝑣Ԧԡ2 = ሺ
ԡ𝑢
ሬ 𝑢 − 𝑣 ሻ∙ (𝑢 − 𝑣)
=ԡ𝑢 ԡ2 − 2𝑢. 𝑣 + ԡ𝑣 ԡ2
By hypothesis ԡ𝑢
Ԧ+ 𝑣Ԧԡ= ԡ𝑢
ሬ Ԧ− 𝑣Ԧԡ
ሬ
ԡ𝑢 ԡ2 + 2𝑢. 𝑣 + ԡ𝑣 ԡ2 = ԡ𝑢 ԡ2 − 2𝑢. 𝑣 + ԡ𝑣 ԡ2
4𝑢. 𝑣 = 0
𝑢. 𝑣 = 0
Hence , 𝑢
ሬ
Ԧ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧare orthogonal
Proof :(⤌) Given 𝑢
ሬ
Ԧ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧare orthogonal
WTS : ԡ𝑢
Ԧ+ 𝑣Ԧԡ= ԡ𝑢
ሬ Ԧ− 𝑣Ԧԡ
ሬ
Ԧ+ 𝑣Ԧԡ2 = ԡ𝑢 ԡ2 − 2𝑢. 𝑣 + ԡ𝑣 ԡ2
ԡ𝑢
ሬ
And
Ԧ− 𝑣Ԧԡ2 =ԡ𝑢 ԡ2 − 2𝑢. 𝑣 + ԡ𝑣 ԡ2
ԡ𝑢
ሬ
Since 𝑢
ሬ
Ԧ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣Ԧare orthogonal 𝑢
ሬ
Ԧ. 𝑣Ԧ= 0
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Therefore, ԡ𝑢
Ԧ+ 𝑣Ԧԡ= ԡ𝑢
ሬ Ԧ− 𝑣Ԧԡ
ሬ
 Properties of NORMED Space
1.
2.

3. …… Parallelogram Law
4. ……………… Polarization identity
5.
6. …….. Cauchy-Schwarz Inequality
7. …….. Triangle inequality

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Pythagoras Theorem:
If A and B are orthogonal vectors, then ԡ𝐴 + 𝐵ԡ2 = ԡ𝐴ԡ2 + ԡ𝐵 ԡ2
Proof: ԡ𝐴 + 𝐵 ԡ2 = ሺ𝐴 + 𝐵 ሻ∙ ሺ𝐴 + 𝐵 ሻ
= ԡ𝐴ԡ2 + 2𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 + ԡ𝐵 ԡ2
= ԡ𝐴ԡ2 + ԡ𝐵 ԡ2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 = 0.
Note: If A is perpendicular to B, then it is also perpendicular to
any scalar multiple of B.
Orthogonal Projection
Definition: Suppose S is the foot of the perpendicular from R to
the line containing ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
𝑃𝑄ሬԦ, then the vector with representation
ሬ
ሬሬሬԦis called the vector projection of B on to A, and is denoted
𝑃𝑆
by project𝐴𝐵 . 33
 R R

B
B
A A
Q
Q
S P P S
Proj AB
projAB

𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵 = ሬ
ሬሬሬԦ = 𝑡𝐴
𝑃𝑆
ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
ሬԦ
𝐵 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵 = 𝑆𝑅
(𝐵 − 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵 ).A=0
(B- t A).A =0
B.A –t A.A =0
𝑨∙𝑩
𝒕 = ԡ ԡ𝟐
𝑨
𝑨∙𝑩
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝐴𝐵 = ሬ
ሬሬሬԦ = 𝒕. 𝑨 =
𝑃𝑆 ԡ𝑨ԡ𝟐
𝐴
34
The scalar projection of B onto A (also called the component of B a long A)
is defined to be the length of project𝐴𝐵 , which is equal to ԡ𝑩ԡ𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 and is
𝑨∙𝑩 𝑨 𝑨∙𝑩
denoted by comp𝐴𝐵 . Thus: 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝑩𝑨 = ቀԡ ԡቁԡ ԡ= ԡ𝑨ԡ𝟐
𝑨
𝑨 𝑨
𝑨∙𝑩 𝑨∙𝑩 𝑨∙𝑩
𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝑩𝑨 = ฮ𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝑩𝑨 ฮ = ቛ ԡ𝑨ԡ𝟐 𝑨ቛ = ቛ ԡ𝑨ԡ𝟐ቛ ԡ𝑨ԡ= ԡ𝑨ԡ

Example: Let 𝐴 = ሺ−1,3,1ሻ = −𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 𝑘 and 𝐵 = ሺ2,4,3ሻ = 2𝑖 + 4𝑗 + 3𝑘

13 13
Then find (i) 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝑨𝑩 [𝑎𝑛𝑠. 29 ሺ2,4,3ሻ] , (ii) 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒋𝑩𝑨 [𝑎𝑛𝑠. 11 ሺ−1,3,1ሻ] (iii) 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒑𝑩𝑨

Directional angles and cosines

Let 𝐴 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 be a vector positioned at the origin in ℝ3 , making an
angle of 𝛼 , 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 with the positive 𝑥 , 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧 axes respectively. Then
the angles 𝛼 , 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 are called the directional angles of A, and the quantities
cos 𝛼 , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝛾 are called the directional cosines of A, which can
be computed as follows: 35
 𝐴.𝑖 𝑎 𝐴.𝑗 𝑎 𝐴.𝑘 𝑎
cos 𝛼 = ԡ ԡԡԡ= ԡ1ԡ , cos 𝛽 = ԡ ԡԡ ԡ= ԡ2ԡ and cos 𝛾 = ԡ ԡԡ ԡ= ԡ3ԡ
𝐴 𝑖 𝐴 𝐴 𝑗 𝐴 𝐴 𝑘 𝐴

From this relation we can deduce a unit vector

𝐴 = ԡ𝐴ԡ(𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾)
𝐴
ԡ𝐴 ԡ
= (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽, 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾) is a unit vector.
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
cos 𝛼 = ԡ1ԡ , 𝛼 ∈ ሾ0, 𝜋ሿ , 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛽 = ԡ2ԡ, 𝛽 ∈ ሾ0, 𝜋ሿ, cos 𝛾 = ԡ3ԡ , 𝛾 ∈ ሾ0, 𝜋ሿ
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝑍
A = a1 i + a2 j +a3k
𝛾
𝛼 𝛽
𝑌

Remark: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 = 1. (Verify!)

𝑎1 2 𝑎2 2 𝑎3 2 ሺ𝑎 1 ሻ2 +ሺ𝑎 2 ሻ2 +ሺ𝑎 3 ሻ2 ԡ𝐴 ԡ2
Solution ቀԡ ԡቁ + ቀԡ ԡቁ + ቀԡ ԡቁ = ԡ𝐴 ԡ2
= ԡ𝐴 ԡ2
=1
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
36
 Solution:-

Solution:-

Solution:-

37
8. The Cross-product , Outer
product and its application

38
Definition: Suppose that 𝐴 = ሺ
𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ሻ = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑎2 𝑗 + 𝑎3 𝑘 and
𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ሻ = 𝑏1 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑏3 𝑘 be two vectors inℝ3 . Then the cross
𝐵 = ሺ
product 𝐴 × 𝐵 of the two vectors is defined as:
𝑨×𝑩 = ሺ𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟑 − 𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟐 ሻ𝒊 + ሺ
𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟏 − 𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟑 ሻ𝒋 + ሺ𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟐 − 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟏 ሻ𝒌
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
Or 𝐴𝑋𝐵 = 𝐷𝑒𝑡 ൭𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ൱
𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3
Example: Let 𝐴 = 4𝑖 − 3𝑗 + 2𝑘
𝐵 = 2𝑖 − 5𝑗 − 𝑘
Then find a) 𝐴 × 𝐵 b) 𝐵 × 𝐴
Remarks: For two non – zero vectors A & B,
1. 𝐴 × 𝐵 is a vector which is orthogonal to both A and B.
2. 𝐴 × 𝐵 is not defined for 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ ℝ2 .
3. 𝑖 × 𝑗 = −𝑗 × 𝑖 = 𝑘
𝑗 × 𝑘 = −ሺ
𝑘 × 𝑗ሻ = 𝑖
𝑘 × 𝑖 = −ሺ
𝑖 × 𝑘ሻ = 𝑗

A XB

-A XB = B XA 39
Properties of Cross Product
Let A, B and C be vectors in ℝ3 and 𝛼 be any scalar. Then:
(1) 𝐴 × 0 = 0 × 𝐴 = 0, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 0 = ((((‫ۃ‬
0,0,0(((((‫ۄ‬
(2) 𝐴 × 𝐵 = − 𝐵 × 𝐴
(3) 𝐴 × ሺ
𝐵 × 𝐶ሻ≠ ሺ
𝐴 × 𝐵 ሻ× 𝐶
(4) ሺ
𝛼𝐴ሻ× 𝐵 = 𝐴 × ሺ
𝛼𝐵 ሻ = 𝛼 ሺ
𝐴 × 𝐵ሻ
(5) 𝐴 × ሺ
𝐵 + 𝐶ሻ = 𝐴 × 𝐵 + 𝐴 × 𝐶
(6) 𝐴 ∙ ሺ
𝐴 × 𝐵ሻ = Β ∙ ሺ
𝐴 × 𝐵ሻ = 0
(7) If A and B are parallel, then 𝐴 × 𝐵 = 0
2 2 ԡ ԡ
(8) ԡ𝐴 × Βԡ = ԡ𝐴ԡ 𝐵 2 −ሺ
𝐴 ∙ Βሻ2
(9) ԡ𝐴 × Βԡ= ԡ𝐴ԡԡΒԡsin 𝜃 , 𝜃 ∈ ሾ0, 𝜋ሿ
.
(10) 𝐴×𝐵 = 𝑛
ො ԡ𝐴ԡԡ𝐵 ԡsin 𝜃, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛
ො is the unit
vector in the direction of 𝐴 × 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 ∈ ሾ0, 𝜋ሿis the
angle between A and B.
Example: If ԡ𝐴ԡ= 2 , ԡΒԡ= 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃 = 𝜋ൗ
4 for two vectors
A and B then find ԡ𝐴 × Βԡ.
Note: The angle 𝜃 between A and B can be obtained by
ԡ𝐴×Β ԡ
sin 𝜃 = ԡ
, for two non – zero vectors A and B.
𝐴 ԡԡΒԡ
40
Applications of cross Product:
(i)Area: The area of a parallelogram whose adjacent sides
coincides with the vectors A and B is given by ԡ𝐴 × Βԡ= ԡ𝐴ԡԡΒԡȁsin 𝜃ȁ
d
b
B
h
O

A a

So, 𝑎ሺ𝑜𝑎𝑏𝑐 ሻ = 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

= ԡ𝐴ԡԡΒԡȁsin 𝜃 ȁ
N.B: The area of the triangle formed by A and B as its adjacent sides is given by
1
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = ԡ𝐴 × Βԡ.
2

ii.Volume
The volume V of a parallelepiped with the three vectors A, B and C in ℝ3 as three of its
adjacent edges is given by:
𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 𝒂𝟑
𝑽 = ȁ𝑨 ∙ ሺ𝑩 × 𝑪ሻȁ = อ𝐝𝐞𝐭 ൭𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 𝒃𝟑 ൱อ
41
𝒄𝟏 𝒄𝟐 𝒄𝟑
 BXC

𝐴 𝐴∙ሺ 𝐵 × 𝐶ሻ ȁ𝐴 ∙ ሺ
𝐵 × 𝐶 ሻȁ
ℎ = ቛ𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗 ቛ=ብ ሺ𝐵 × 𝐶 ሻብ =
𝐵×𝐶 ԡ𝐵 × 𝐶ԡ2 ԡ𝐵 × 𝐶ԡ

Hence, 𝐵 × 𝐶ሻȁ
V =𝐵𝑎 ℎ = ȁ𝐴 ∙ ሺ

Examples:
1. Find the area of a triangle whose vertices are 𝐴 ሺ
1, −1,0ሻ, 𝐵 ሺ
2,1, −1ሻ
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 ሺ
−1,1,2ሻ.
Solution: The vectors on the sides of the
triangle ∆ 𝐴Β𝐶 areሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
𝐴𝐵ሬ
ሬԦ= 𝐵 − 𝐴 = ሺ
1,2, −1ሻ𝑎𝑛𝑑 ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
ሬ
𝐴𝐶Ԧ= ሺ
−2,2,2ሻ = 𝐶 − 𝐴.
1
So, 𝑎 ሺ
∆ 𝐴Β𝐶 ሻ = ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
ฮ𝐴𝐵ሬ
Ԧ× 𝐴𝐶ฮ = 3ξ 2 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠.
2

1. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with edges

𝑢
ሬ
Ԧ= 𝑖 + 𝑘 , 𝑣Ԧ= 2𝑖 + 𝑗 + 4𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤
ሬ
ሬԦ= 𝑗 + 𝑘.
Solution: V=ȁ𝑢
Ԧ∙ ሺ
ሬ 𝑣Ԧ× 𝑤
ሬ
ሬԦሻȁ = 1 𝑢 3
42
N.B: Three vectors 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 are coplanar iff 𝐴 ∙ ሺ
𝐵 × 𝐶 ሻ = 0.
Lines and Planes in ℝ𝟑
Definition: A vector 𝑣Ԧ= ((((‫ۃ‬
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 (((((‫ۄ‬
is said to be parallel to a line ℓ 𝑖𝑓 𝑣Ԧ
is parallel to ሬ
Ρሬ
ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬሬ
Ԧ
0 Ρ1 for any two distinct points Ρ0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ρ1 𝑜𝑛 ℓ.

A line ℓ 𝑖𝑛 ℝ3 is determined by a given point Ρ0 ሺ𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ሻon ℓ

and a parallel vector 𝑣Ԧ(directional vector) 𝑣Ԧ= ((((‫ۃ‬
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 (((((‫ۄ‬
𝑡𝑜 ℓ.
Equations of a line in space:
Let Ρ0 ሺ𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ሻbe a given point on a line ℓ and 𝑃 ሺ𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧ሻbe any
ሬ
Ԧ = ((((‫ۃ‬
arbitrary point on ℓ. If 𝑉 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 (((((‫ۄ‬
is the parallel vector to ℓ, then
1) The parametric equation of ℓ is given by 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡,
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡 , 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ ℜ, where t is called
the parameter.
2) The symmetric form of equation of ℓ is given by:
𝒙 − 𝒙 𝟎 𝒚 − 𝒚 𝟎 𝒛 − 𝒛𝟎
= = , 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂, 𝒃, 𝒄 ≠ 𝟎.
𝒂 𝒃 𝒄
ሬ
Ԧ− 𝒓
3) The vector equation of ℓ is written as 𝒓 ሬ
Ԧ𝟎 = 𝒕𝒗
ሬԦ, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡 ∈ ℜ.
43
Remarks:
1. The above equations of the line can be derived using vector
algebra as follows:

Z
p
P0

r0 r
Y

ሬ
ሬ
From vector addition, we have 𝑟Ԧ− 𝑟Ԧ0 = Ρሬ
ሬሬ
ሬԦ Ԧ
0Ρ & 𝑟𝑜 = 𝑥0 𝑖 + 𝑦0 𝑗 + 𝑧0 𝑘,

ሬ
ሬ ሬ
ሬ
𝑟Ԧ= 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘. Since Ρሬ
ሬሬሬ
Ԧ 𝑣Ԧ, there exists 𝑡 ∈ ℜ such that
0 Ρԡ

ሬ
ሬ
𝑟Ԧ− 𝑟Ԧ0 = 𝑡𝑣Ԧ= Ρሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
0Ρ
Ԧ

 ((((‫ۃ‬
𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 (((((‫ۄ‬
= 𝑡 ((((‫ۃ‬
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 (((((‫ۄ‬
 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, 𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡.
2. If one of 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑜𝑟 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 0, (say for instance 𝑏 = 0),
the symmetric equation of ℓ is given as:
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑧 − 𝑧0
= , 𝑦 = 𝑦0 . 44
𝑎 𝑐
Note that:- For two distinct lines

1) Are intersecting lines iff such that

2) Thus
3) Non-intersecting and non-parallel lines calles skew line.
4)
Example: Find parametric equations and symmetric equations of the line l
containing the points P1 =(4, – 6, 5) and P2 = (2, –3, 0).
Solution:-

45
Exercise:-1 Show that the lines and with parametric equations

are skew lines; that is, they do not intersect and are not parallel (and
therefore do not lie in the same plane).

Exercise:- 2 Find the point of intersection of the two lines

46
Equation of a plane:
A plane in space is determined by a point Ρ0 ሺ𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ሻin the plane
and a vector 𝑛ሬ
Ԧthat is orthogonal to the plane. This orthogonal
Ԧis called a normal vector. Suppose that 𝑃 ሺ𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧ሻbe any
vector 𝑛ሬ
arbitrary point in the plane, and let 𝑟Ԧ𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑟Ԧ0 be the position
vectors of 𝑃 ሺ𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧ሻand Ρ0 ሺ𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ሻ. Then we have
Ԧ∙ ሺ𝑟Ԧ− 𝑟Ԧ0 ሻ = 0 (Since 𝑛ሬ
𝑛ሬ Ԧ perpendicular to any vector in the plane).
 𝑛ሬ
Ԧ∙ 𝑟Ԧ= 𝑛ሬ
Ԧ∙ ሬ
𝑟ሬ
ሬ
𝑜Ԧ,which is called the vector equation of the plane.

Ԧ= ((((‫ۃ‬
If we let 𝑛ሬ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐(((((‫ۄ‬
= 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘, we get
((((‫ۃ‬
𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐(((((‫ۄ‬
∙ ((((‫ۃ‬
𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , 𝑧 − 𝑧0 (((((‫ۄ‬
=0
 𝑎ሺ𝑥 − 𝑥0 ሻ+ 𝑏ሺ𝑦 − 𝑦0 ሻ+ 𝑐 ሺ𝑧 − 𝑧0 ሻ = 0
(point - normal form of equation of a plane)
⟺ 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃𝒚 + 𝒄𝒛 + 𝒅 = 𝟎, 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒅 = −ሺ𝒂𝒙𝟎 + 𝒃𝒚𝟎 + 𝒄𝒛𝟎 ሻ
(general or standard form of the equation of a plane). 47
Examples:
1. Find the equations of a line that contains the point ሺ1,4, −1ሻ
and parallel to 𝑣Ԧ= −2𝑖 + 3𝑗.
Solution: let ΡΟ = ((((‫ۃ‬
1 ,4, −1ሻ =ሺ𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ሻ
Then the parametric form of the equation of the line is:
𝑥 = 1 − 2𝑡
൝𝑦 = 4 + 3𝑡 and its symmetric form is given as:
𝑧 = −1
𝑥−1 𝑦−4
−2
= 3
, 𝑧 = −1.

2. Find the equation of the plane through the points Ρ0 ሺ1,1,1ሻ,

Ρ1 ሺ2,2,0ሻ𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ρ2 ሺ4, −6,2ሻ.
Solution: The vectors 𝐴Ԧ= Ρ
ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬሬ
Ԧ
0 Ρ1 = ((((‫ۃ‬
1,1, −1(((((‫ۄ‬
𝑎𝑛𝑑
ሬ
ΒԦ = Ρ
ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬሬ
ሬሬ
Ԧ
1 Ρ2 = ((((‫ۃ‬
3, −7,1(((((‫ۄ‬
are parallel to the plane, and hence, their
Ԧ= 𝐴Ԧ× ሬ
cross product 𝑛
ሬ ΒԦ = ((((‫ۃ‬
−6, −4, −10(((((‫ۄ‬
is normal to the plane.
Thus, the equation of the plane is given by:
−6 ሺ𝑥 − 1ሻ− 4ሺ𝑦 − 1ሻ− 10 ሺ𝑧 − 1ሻ = 0
48
 3 × +2𝑦 + 5𝑧 − 10 = 0
OR: The equation of the plane can be obtained by computing:
𝑥−1 𝑦−1 𝑧−1
𝑑𝑒𝑡 ൭𝑥 − 2 𝑦−2 𝑧 − 0൱= 0
𝑥−4 𝑦+6 𝑧−2
Distance in Space
a) Distance from a point to a line
The distance D from a point Ρ1 (not on ℓ) to a line ℓ in space is given by:

Ԧ× ሬ
ሬ
ฮ𝒗 𝚸ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬሬ
ሬሬ
Ԧ
𝚶 𝚸𝟏 ฮ
𝑫= , where 𝑣Ԧis the directional vector of ℓ and ΡΟ is any point on ℓ.
ԡ𝒗
Ԧԡ
ሬ
Proof:

Z
P1 L
D

𝜃 V
P0
Y
X

𝐷
sin 𝜃 = ሬ
ሬ
⟹ 𝐷 = ฮΡሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬሬ
Ԧ
Ο Ρ1 ฮsin 𝜃
ሬ
ሬ
ฮΡሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬሬ
Ԧ
Ο Ρ1 ฮ

ฮ𝑣
ሬ ሬ
ሬ
Ԧ×Ρሬሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
Ρሬሬ
1Ԧฮ
ሬ
ሬ
But since ฮ𝑣Ԧ× Ρሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬሬ
Ԧ
Ο Ρ1 ฮ = ԡ
ሬ
ሬ
𝑣Ԧԡ ฮΡሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬሬ
Ԧ
Ο Ρ1 ฮ ȁsin 𝜃 ȁ, = ԡ𝑣Ԧԡ𝐷 , we have: 𝐷 = Ο
. 49
ԡ𝑣
Ԧԡ
ሬ
a) Distance from a point to a plane
The perpendicular distance D of a point Ρ0 ሺ
𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ሻin space to the
plane with the equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 is given by:
ȁ𝑎𝑥 0 +𝑏𝑦 0 +𝑐𝑧 0 +𝑑 ȁ ห
𝑛ሬ ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
ሬ
Ԧ∙𝑜ΡԦห
𝐷 = ξ 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
= ԡԦԡ
ሬ
𝑛
, where o is the foot of 𝑛
ሬ
Ԧwithin the plane.

Proof: Consider the diagram below:

P(x0,y0,z0)

O(x1,y1,z1)

ሬ
ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬԦ
ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
ฮ𝑜ΡԦ∙ 𝑛
ሬԦฮ ሬ
หሬ
𝑜Ρሬ
ሬԦ∙ 𝑛
ሬ
Ԧห
0Ρ
𝐷 = ቛ𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑛
Ԧ ቛ =
ሬ ԡ𝑛
ሬԦԡ=
ԡ𝑛ሬԦԡ2 ԡ𝑛Ԧԡ
ሬ
ȁ𝑎𝑥 0 +𝑏𝑦 0 +𝑐𝑧 0 +𝑑 ȁ
 𝐷 = ξ 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑑 = −ሺ
𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐𝑧1 ሻ

P1(x1,y1,z1)

𝜃 

P0(x0,y0,z0) 50
 B.
OP1  D  CompB  where


a ( x1  x 0 )  b( y1  y 0 )  c( z1  z 0 )
B  P0 P 1  ( x1  x 0 , y1  y 0 , z1  z 0 ) 
a2  b2  c2
ȁ𝑑 ȁ
NB: If Ρ = ሺ0,0,0ሻ, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐷 = ξ 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
, w/c is the distance of the plane from the origin.

Examples:
1. Find the distance of the point Ρ1 ሺ−1,3,0ሻfrom the line with
𝑦 −1 𝑧+1
symmetric equations: ℓ: 𝑥 = 1, = .
3 2

2. How far is the point Ρ ሺ1,2,3ሻfrom the plane with equation 𝜋: 3𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 4𝑧 + 37 = 0.

Solutions:
1. Here, the directional (parallel) vector of ℓ is: 𝑣Ԧ= ((((‫ۃ‬
0,3,2(((((‫ۄ‬
, 𝑎𝑛𝑑
ሬ
ሬ
𝑙𝑒𝑡 Ρ0 ሺ1,1, −1ሻ ∈ ℓ be taken. Then Ρሬ
ሬሬ
ሬሬሬ
Ԧ
Ο Ρ1 = Ρ1 − Ρ0 = ((((‫ۃ‬
−2,2,1(((((‫ۄ‬
.
ԡΡ Ο Ρ 1 ×𝑣
Ԧԡ
ሬ ԡሺ3−4ሻ𝑖+ሺ4−0ሻ𝑗 +ሺ0+6ሻ𝑘ԡ ξ 53
Thus, 𝐷 = ԡ𝑣Ԧԡ
ሬ
= ξ 32 +22
= units.
ξ 13

2. Here ሺ𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ሻ = ሺ1,2,3ሻ, 𝑛

Ԧ= ((((‫ۃ‬
ሬ 3,5,4(((((‫ۄ‬
, 𝑑 = 37.
ȁ𝑎𝑥 0 +𝑏𝑦 0 +𝑐𝑧 0 +𝑑 ȁ ȁ301 +5.2−4.3+37 ȁ 19ξ 2
Thus, 𝐷 = ԡ𝑛ሬԦԡ
= = units.
ξ 50 5
25
37 ห𝑛ሬ ሬ
ሬሬ
ሬ
ሬ
Ԧ∙0ΡԦห ሺ3,5,−4ሻቀ1,2,
ቚ ቁቚ 19ξ 2
Ԧ= ((((‫ۃ‬
OR: Take 𝑛
ሬ 3,5,4(((((‫ۄ‬
& 0 = ቀ0,0, ቁ∈ 𝜋. Then 𝐷 = ԡ𝑣
Ԧԡ
ሬ
= 4
= . 51
4 ξ 50 5
Distance between two parallel planes
Given two parallel planes 𝜋1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋2 . Then we can have normal vectors
with coefficients 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 to be the same such that:
𝜋1 : 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑1 and 𝜋2 : 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑2.
Then the distance between 𝜋1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋2 is the same as the distance
from any arbitrary point 𝑃ሺ
𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ሻ has been taken from 𝜋1 to the
ȁ𝑎 𝑥 𝑜 +𝑏𝑦 𝑜 +𝑐𝑧𝑜 −𝑑 2 ȁ
plane 𝜋2 . ⇒𝐷 = ξ 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
. But 𝑎𝑥𝑜 + 𝑏𝑦𝑜 + 𝑐𝑧𝑜 = 𝑑1
ȁ𝑑 1 −𝑑 2 ȁ
Thus, 𝐷= ξ 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2

Example: Find the distance between the planes

𝜋1 : 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋2 : 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 4𝑧 = 7
Solution: We first rewrite the equations 𝜋1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜋2 so that they
Ԧ= ((((‫ۃ‬
have the same 𝑛
ሬ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 (((((‫ۄ‬
. That is: 𝜋1 : 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 3
𝜋2 : 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 7ൗ
2 ⟹ 𝑑1 = 3& 𝑑2 = 7ൗ
2
ȁ𝑑 1 −𝑑 2 ȁ
Thus, 𝐷 = ξ 𝑎 2 +𝑏 2 +𝑐 2
, 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = −2
1
ห7ൗ −3ห
= 2
= 2
= 1ൗ
6 52
ξ 1+4+4 3
Remarks:-
1. Let
a) If two points of the line lies on the plane, the lies on .
b) i.e.
c) i.e.
2. Let be two planes:
a) i.e.
b) i.e.
c) the angle b/n is the angle b/n

thus, we have

53
Example:- Find the equation of the plane passing through p(-2,3,5) and is
perpendicular to the line with parametric equation

Solution:-
Exercise:- 1. Find the point of intersection of the line with parametric
equations intersect the plane

Exercise:-2 For two planes

a) Find the angle b/n .
b) Find the symmetric equations for the line of intersection of the two
planes .

54
 Vector Space
Definition(Vector Space)
A real vector space V is a set
of objects together with two
operations addition “+” and
Scalar multiple “.” satisfying
the following axioms:

55
Note that :
i) R(the set of real number) is a vector space over a field R.
ii) any vector space contain at least one element(i.e. Nonempty)
Example:-1 The set of all vectors in a plane is a vector space over R
under the standard operation vector addition “+” and Scalar
Multiple.
Solution:-
iii) Under the standard operation are real vector
space.
Example:- 2 together with the standard
operations Matrix addition and scalar Multiple form a real vector
spaces.

56
Example:- 3 , the set of all polynomial of degree less than or
equal to 2 with standard operations is a real vector space.
iv) In order to show that V is not a vector space it is enough to show
that one axiom of the vector space doesn’t hold
Solution:-
Example:-4 Is with standard operation is a vector space?
Solution:-
Example:-5 be the set of all vectors in a plane with defined
operations. Examine whether is a vector space or not.
a)   b)

 
57
Subspace(W)
58
Subspaces

Definition: Let V be a given vector space over a field F. Then a non-empty subset W of V is said
to be a subspace of V if W itself is a vector space over F under the operations of V.

Theorem: Suppose that V is a vector space over a field F.A non-empty subset W of V is a
subspace of V if it satisfies the following conditions:

i. 𝑢, 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊 ⇒ 𝑢 + 𝑣 ∈ 𝑊.
ii. ∀𝑢 ∈ 𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 ∈ 𝐹 ⇒ 𝑐𝑢 ∈ 𝑊.
iii. 0 ∈ 𝑊.

Examples

1. V and ሼ0ሽare the trivial subspaces of any vector space V.

2. For the vector space 𝑉 = ℝ3 = {ሺ𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧ሻ; 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ} over ℝ.Then the set 𝑊 =
{ሺ𝑥, 𝑦, 0ሻ; 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ} is a subspace of V. (verify!)
Solution
i) Let 𝑈 = ሺ𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 0ሻ and 𝑉 = ሺ𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 0ሻ
then 𝑈 + 𝑉 = ሺ𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2 , 0ሻ ∈ 𝑊
ii) Let 𝑈 = ሺ𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 0ሻ and 𝑐𝑈 = {𝑐𝑥1 , 𝑐𝑦1 , 0) ∈ 𝑊}
iii) (0,0,0)W
Therefore W is the subspace of V 59
 3. The set of all lines passing through the origin, 𝐿 = {𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} is a
subspace of the vector space 𝑉 = ℝ2 .
Solution
i) Let 𝐿1 = {𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} and 𝐿2 = {𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑦2 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ
the 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 = {𝑎ሺ𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ሻ, 𝑏ሺ𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ሻ = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} ∈ 𝐿
ii)Let 𝐿1 = {𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} and 𝑐𝐿1 = {𝑐(𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 ) = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} ∈ 𝐿
iii) 𝐿1 = {𝑎(0) + 𝑏(0) = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ} ∈ 𝐿 this implies that line L passes through the
origin.
Therefore L is the subspace of V

Exercise: 1.Is the set 𝑊 = {𝑥 − 4𝑦 = 1} a subspace of 𝑉 = ℝ2 ? Justify.

2. Which of the following is the subspace of 𝑉 = ℝ3 ?

a) 𝑊 = {ሺ𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 1ሻ; 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑅

b) 𝑊 = {ሺ𝑥1 , 𝑥1 + 𝑥3 , 𝑥3 ሻ; 𝑥1 , 𝑥3 ∈ 𝑅 60
Theorem2: A subset W of a vector space V is a subspace of v iff

Example:- Show that is the subspace

of .
Exercise:- Let V be a vector space . Examine whether the
following are subspace or not.
a.
b.
c.
d.

61
Linear Dependent(LD)
and Linearly
independent(LI)

62
Linear Dependence and Independence

Definition: Let 𝑣1 , 𝑣2, … , 𝑣𝑛 be elements of an arbitrary vector space V, and

𝛼1 , 𝛼2, … , 𝛼𝑛 be scalars. An expression of the form 𝛼1 𝑣1 + 𝛼2 𝑣2 + ⋯ 𝛼𝑛 𝑣𝑛

is called linear combinations of the vectors 𝑣1 , 𝑣2, … , 𝑣𝑛 .

Examples:

1) For the set of vectors in ℝ3 , 𝑆 = {ሺ1,3,1ሻ, ሺ0,1,2ሻ, ሺ1,0,5ሻ}

Let 𝑣1 = ሺ1,3,1ሻ, 𝑣2 = ሺ0,1,2ሻ, 𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑣3 ሺ1,0,5ሻ

V1 is a linear combinations of v2 and v3 because

V1= c1 (0,1, 2) +c2 (1,0,5), (1, 3, 1) = c1 (0, 1, 2) +c2 (1,0,5)

C1 =1 and 2c1 -5c2 =1, C2 =3 V1 =3 V2 + V3

This implies that S is linearly independent .

Exercise:

1) Write the vector W = (1,1,1) as a linear combination of vectors in the set S.

S = { (1,2,3),(0,1,2), (-1,0,1)}.

2) If possible, write the vector W = (1,-2, 2) as a linear combinations of vectors in the set
S ={ (1,2,3),(0,1,2), (-1,0,1)}. 63
 Definition: Let 𝑣1 , 𝑣2, … , 𝑣𝑛 are vectors in a vector space V over ℝ.Then vectors are called:

1. linearly dependent if there exist scalars 𝛼1 , 𝛼2, … , 𝛼𝑛 not all zero such that
𝛼1 𝑣1 + 𝛼2 𝑣2 + ⋯ 𝛼𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0.
2. Linearly independent if 𝛼1 𝑣1 + 𝛼2 𝑣2 + ⋯ 𝛼𝑛 𝑣𝑛 = 0 implies
𝛼1 = 𝛼2 = … = 𝛼𝑛 = 0.

Linear dependence in the vector space V ¼ R3 can be described geometrically as follows:

(a) Any two vectors u and v in R3 are linearly dependent if and only if they lie on the same line
through the origin O, as shown in Fig. 4-3(a).
(b) Any three vectors u, v, w in R3 are linearly dependent if and only if they lie on the same
plane through the origin O, as shown in Fig. 4-3(b)Later, we will be able to show that any four
or more vectors in R3 are automatically linearly dependent.

64
Examples:

1. Determine whether the following set of vectors in the vector space 𝑉 = ℝ3 are linearly
dependent or independent. a)ሼሺ1, 0,0ሻ, ሺ0 , 1, 0ሻ, (0, 0,3)ሽ b) ሼሺ2, 6,0ሻ, ሺ2 , 4, 1ሻ, (1 , 1, 1)ሽ.
c) {(1,2,3),(0,1,2),(-2,0,1)}
2. Let V be the vector space of all real valued functions of the variable t. Then which of the
following set of functions are LD/LI? Justify!

a) ሼ𝑡, 𝑡 2 , 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 ሽ b) ሼ𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 𝑡, 1 ሽ

3. Determine whether the following set of vectors in the vector space 𝑉 = ℝ2 are linearly
dependent or independent a) {(1, 2), (2,4)} b) {(1, 0), (0,1),(-2,5)}

4 . Determine whether the following set of vectors in P2 are linearly dependent or

independent . S = {1+ x -2x2 , 2+5x –x2 , x+x2 }

65
Basis set of the vector spaces(S)

66
Basis of a vector space

Definitions: Let V be any vector space over a field F, and let the set 𝑆 = ൛𝑣1, 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 ൟ
be a set of
vectors in V. Then:

i) S is said to spans (or generates) V if each element of V is a linear combinations of

elements of S.
ii) S is called a basis for V if S is a linearly independent set and it spans V.
iii) The dimension of V is said to be n (dim V=n) if V has basis consisting of n-elements.

Examples:

1. Show that the set 𝑆 = ሼሺ1,0,0ሻ, ሺ0,1,0ሻ, (0,0,5)ሽform a basis of the vector spaceℜ3 .
Solution
I) we need to show that S is linearly independent
𝛼ሺ1,0,0ሻ+ 𝛽 ሺ0,1,0ሻ, + 𝛾ሺ0,0,5ሻ = (0,0,0)
𝛼=𝛽=𝛾=0
Hence S is linearly independent
ii) we need to show that S spans ℜ3
Let (x, y ,z) ℜ3 then (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝛼 ሺ1,0,0ሻ+ 𝛽 ሺ0,1,0ሻ, + 𝛾ሺ0,0,5ሻ
𝑧
𝛼 = 𝑥 , 𝛽 = 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 5
𝑧
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥ሺ1,0,0ሻ+ 𝑦ሺ0,1,0ሻ, + ሺ0,0,5ሻ
5
Therefore , S Spans ℜ3 67
1.8. Basis of a vector space.

68
69