Atomic Structure

The Quantum Mechanical

Model of the Atom
• Since the Bohr Model was unable to explain and make
predictions about multi-electron atoms, a new approach was
needed (occurred in the mid 1920’s).
• The approach that was taken (which is the currently accepted
model) is called the wave mechanics or quantum mechanics.
• Quantum Mechanics is the study of motion at the atomic level
where laws of classical motions do not apply because particles
behave like waves (dual nature of matter).
• Three physicists were at the forefront of this model: Erwin
Schrodinger, Louis de Broglie and Werner Heisenberg.
 de Broglie originated the idea that an electron has
both wave and particle properties (i.e. dual nature of
matter)
 Schrodinger then focussed on the wave properties of
the electron.
 To Schrodinger and de Broglie an electron bound to a
nucleus resembled a standing wave.

 They took the idea of standing waves and applied it to

the electron in hydrogen.

 Their model showed the electron as a circular

standing wave with wavelengths of whole number
multiples (n= 1, 2, 3, 4, …).
• Any other orbits would cause the standing wave to
cancel out or collapse.
• Schrodinger’s work led to the development of the
Schrodinger wave equation which can be used to
calculate electron energy levels.
• This gave a definable amount of energy to an electron
allowing it to be localized to a given orbital (a region
around the nucleus where there is a high probability
of finding an electron).
• However electrons are so small that any attempt to
measure its location or speed will affect its location
and/or speed.
• This formed the basis of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty
Principle which is the idea that it is impossible to know
the exact position and speed of an electron at a given
time.
• The best that can be done is to describe the
probability of finding an electron in a specific
location.
• The “shapes” of the electron orbitals are 3-D electron
probability densities created by physicists using
wave functions (the mathematical probability of
finding an electron in a certain region of space.)
• Electrons have the ability to jump to these different
orbitals if they absorb sufficient quanta of energy.
• Two main points of the Quantum Mechanical model
were:

1. Electrons can be in different orbitals by absorbing or

emitting quanta of energy.

2. The location of electrons is given by a probability

distribution.
Electron
Configuration and
Energy Level
Diagrams
Electron Configurations

 Electron configuration shows the specific placement

of electrons within an energy level (its like the
electron’s address)
 The sublevels of an energy level are called orbitals
and each orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons.
 There are 4 orbital types: s, p, d, f.
Quantum Numbers

 A set of 4 numbers that describes an electron’s

location. (like GPS co-ordinates)
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
- energy level that the electron is in
2. Secondary Quantum Number (l)
- also called the Angular Momentum Quantum
Number
- describes the orbital type that the electron is in
s orbital l=0, p orbital l=1, d orbital l=2, f orbital
l=3
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
- describes which orbital in a set the electron is in
- possible ml values run from –l through to +l (whole
numbers only)
- start by filling the –l value first.
4. Spin Quantum Number (ms)
- describes whether the electron is spinning clockwise
(+1/2) or counterclockwise (-1/2)
- the first electron in the orbital is +1/2
Energy Levels - Rules
• Energy levels of lowest
energy are filled first
• When n increases,
the energy of an electron
increases

• Within one energy level,

energy increases in the
subshells from s, p, d to f
s orbital → single
 p orbitals → group of 3
 d orbitals → group of 5
 f orbitals → group of 7
 Every energy level will have
an s orbital, p orbitals are
found at energy level 2 and
above, d orbitals are in
energy levels 3 and above
and f orbitals are at levels 4
and above.
Energy Levels - Rules
•Electrons are always placed in
the lowest energy orbitals first
(i.e. closest to the nucleus)

•As atoms become larger and

the main energy levels become
closer together

•Due to the overlapping of

energy levels, some orbitals of a
higher energy level are actually
closer to the nucleus than
orbitals of the energy level
below them.
Filling Orbitals with Electrons
RULES FOR CREATING ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS
1.The Aufbau Principal – electrons will always occupy
lowest available energy level

2. Pauli Exclusion Principle – no two electrons have the same

set of four quantum numbers – when placed in the orbital the
electrons will spin in different directions

3. Hund’s Rule – electrons remain unpaired for as long as

possible
*
Energy Level Diagrams
 Show how the electrons are placed within the
orbitals.
 Orbitals are represented with lines _ or circles Ο.
 Electrons are represented by up and down arrows or
half arrows.
Learning Check
Spot the mistake and rule
Hund’s Rule

Pauli’s Rule

Aufbau’s Rule

Challenge: Can you identify the

elements in the diagrams
• This order can also be determined from the periodic
table.
Explaining the Periodic Table
• The maximum number of electrons in the s, p, d, and f
orbitals corresponds exactly to the number of columns of
elements in the s, p, d, and f blocks in the periodic table.

• For example, the transition elements are elements filling

the d energy sublevel with electrons (the 5d orbitals can
accommodate 10 electrons, and there are 10 elements in
each transition-metal period).
Writing Electron Configuration
1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, and 3p5.

 Write the electron configuration for chlorine atom

 Step 1: locate chlorine on the periodic table. Starting at the top left of the
table
Ex. Gallium
Finding an element using
Electron Configuration
Identify the element whose atoms have the following electron configuration:
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6 6s2 4f14 5d10 6p4

 Notice that the highest n is 6, so you can go quickly to the higher periods in
the table to identify the element.
 The highest s and p orbitals always tell you the period number, and in this
case the electron configuration finishes with 6s2 4f 14 5d10 6p4: the element
must be in period 6

is polonium, Po
Shorthand Electron Configuration
• Can use the preceding noble gas in brackets
Some Unexpected Electron Configurations
• Examples: Cu and Cr
Expected Actual

Cr: [Ar] 4s2 3d4 [Ar] 4s1 3d5

Cu: [Ar] 4s2 3d9 [Ar] 4s13d10

Anomalous Electron Configurations

 There are 2 stable electron configurations; a filled set

of orbitals and a half filled set of orbitals.
 Due to the overlapping of higher energy orbitals, and
the fact that it takes energy to place 2 electrons into
the same orbital some elements are exceptions to the
normal filling rules.
 For example, Cr has the configuration [Ar]4s13d5
NOT [Ar]4s23d4 because it is more stable and takes
less energy for the 4s and 3d orbitals to be half filled.
(Mo also follows this pattern)
 Also, Cu has the configuration [Ar]4s13d10 NOT
[Ar]4s23d9 because it is more stable and takes less
energy. (Ag and Au also follow this pattern)
Anomalous Electron Configurations

 For example, Cr has the configuration [Ar]4s13d5

NOT [Ar]4s23d4 because it is more stable and takes
less energy for the 4s and 3d orbitals to be half filled.
(Mo also follows this pattern)
Anomalous Electron Configurations

 Also, Cu has the configuration [Ar]4s13d10 NOT

[Ar]4s23d9 because it is more stable and takes less
energy. (Ag and Au also follow this pattern)
The Whole Periodic Table
Electron configurations of ions
 Negative ions will gain enough electrons to
fill the orbitals of their highest energy level.
Since non-metals are the ones that make
anions, those would be the p orbitals of the
highest energy shells

 E.g. Oxide (2-)

 1s2 2s2 2p8 (the neutral atom is 2p6)
Electron configurations of ions
 Positive ions will lose electrons from the highest
available energy shell before it loses from the next
shell down

 E.g. Nickel [Ar]4s2 3d8

 Nickel 2+ [Ar]3d8 (loses 2 electrons from the outer

shell, 4th)

 Nickel 3+ [Ar]3d7 (loses 2 electrons from the outer

shell, 4th, then 1 from the 3rd)
Quantum Numbers

 A set of 4 numbers that describes an electron’s

location. (like GPS co-ordinates)
1. Principal Quantum Number (n)
- energy level that the electron is in
2. Secondary Quantum Number (l)
- also called the Angular Momentum Quantum
Number
- describes the orbital type that the electron is in
(shape of the orbitals)
s orbital l=0, p orbital l=1, d orbital l=2, f orbital
l=3
3. Magnetic Quantum Number (ml)
- describes which orbital in a set the electron is in and
its orientation
- possible ml values run from –l through to +l (whole
numbers only)
- start by filling the –l value first.
4. Spin Quantum Number (ms)
- describes whether the electron is spinning clockwise
(+1/2) or counterclockwise (-1/2)
- the first electron in the orbital is +1/2
Sample Problems

1. Give the set of quantum numbers for the last

electron placed in
a) Fe b) As c) Au
3, 2, -2, -½ 4, 1, 1, ½ 5, 2, 2, -½
2. Are the following sets of quantum numbers possible?
a) 3, 3, 0, ½
- no energy level 3 does not have f orbitals
b) 2, 0, 1, -½
- no the ml value for an s orbital must be 0
c) 5, 0, 0, ½
- yes that is the last electron in Rb
Homework
Read p.181-188
• Worksheet – Orbital Diagrams/Electron Configurations Worksheet #1 -
#3 Homework Check this Thursday
Types of Chemical
Bonds
IONIC BONDS
 Occur between an element with low ionization
energy (a metal) and an element with high
ionization energy (a non-metal).
 An actual transfer of electrons from the metal
(becoming a cation) to the non-metal (becoming an
anion) occurs.
 Thistransfer results in the formation of 2
oppositely charged ions.
 The electrostatic interaction between the 2 ions
holds the compound together.
Properties of Ionic Compounds
 Solids at room temperature because the attraction
between the ions is very strong.
 The intramolecular forces are the same as the
intermolecular forces (i.e. the electrostatic attraction of
oppositely charged ions)
 Atoms are arranged in a highly ordered crystal lattice
structure which maximizes the attractive forces between
oppositely charged ions and minimizes the repulsion
between like charged ions (the crystal structures are
determined experimentally using X-ray crystallography).
 Soluble in water (the ions will dissociate in water).
 Will conduct electricity as a liquid or aqueous solution
because the ions are free to move to oppositely charged
electrodes.
 COVALENT BONDS
 Occur between 2 atoms with high ionization energies (i.e. 2
non-metal atoms).
 Result from a sharing of electrons to obtain a full outer energy
level (octet rule).
 If the electronegativity difference between the two atoms is less
than 0.4, the bond is a true covalent bond and the electrons are
shared equally.
 If the electronegativity difference between the two atoms is
between 0.4 and 1.7, the bond is polar and there is an unequal
sharing of electrons.
 If a molecule contains polar covalent bonds and is
asymmetrical, the molecule will be polar.
 If both electrons being shared come from the same atom, the
bond is a coordinate covalent bond.
Properties of Non-Polar Covalent
Compounds
 Have low melting and boiling points and are
usually gases at room temperature. This is due to
the low intermolecular forces that exist in these
molecules (London Dispersion Forces only).
 Ifsolid at room temperature, the solid is usually
soft and waxy.
 Soluble in non-polar solvents such as ethers.
 Will not conduct electricity in any form due to
the fact that there are no ions present.
Properties of Polar Covalent Molecules
 Since these compounds exhibit polarity or dipoles,
their intermolecular forces will be greater than
non-polar covalent compounds (the presence of
dipole-dipole forces and possibly H-bonding).
 These compounds will have higher melting and
boiling points and are more likely to be liquids or
solids at room temperature (may even exhibit a
crystal lattice like sugar).
 Will dissolve in polar solvents if H-bonding is
present (sugar in water).
 Will not conduct electricity to any appreciable
degree (only ionize to a very small degree)
What is a metallic bond ?
 Occurs when both atoms have low ionization
energies and low electronegativities and will lose
electrons easily (i.e. 2 metals)
 In metallic bonding, positive metal ions are
arranged with valence electrons delocalized
around them.
 Since the electrons are delocalized, they are mobile
and able to move throughout the metal structure.
Properties of Metallic Compounds

1. Malleable and ductile because atoms are not

restricted to one position by a fixed bond and the
ions can roll past each other.
2. Good conductors of heat and electricity
because the electrons are mobile and can
transmit energy rapidly.
3. Shiny because when light strikes a metal, the
valence electrons absorb energy, oscillate at the
same frequency as the incident light (incoming
light) and then emit light as a reflection of the
original light.
4. Solids at room temperature (except mercury)
due to the strong bonds (intermolecular and
intramolecular forces are the same).
5. They exhibit the photoelectric effect which is
electron emission caused by heat or light. This
occurs when the frequency and therefore the
energy of light striking a metal is sufficient to
overcome the attractive forces and an electron
escapes the metal decreasing the energy of the
photon. (ex. Solar panels)
Network Solids
What is a network solid?
 Network solids are macromolecules, giant
structures of covalently bonded atoms in one, two
or three dimensional arrays.
Allotropes: elements that exist in different physical
forms with different physical properties but the
same chemical properties.
For example graphite and diamond are allotropes
of carbon (as is “Buckey ball”). Both form carbon
dioxide and water when undergoing combustion
but only graphite conducts electricity and diamond
is one of the hardest substances known.
3-Dimensional Network Solids
 These network solids consist of covalently bonded
atoms which form regular 3-D arrays or crystals.
 Much like an ionic crystal, the intermolecular
bonds are the same as the intramolecular bonds
(covalent bonds).
 Due to the very strong bonds, these solids will
have very high melting and boiling points, will
be solids at room temperature, be extremely hard,
not soluble in polar or nonpolar solvents and they
do not conduct electricity.
 Examples include diamond, quartz and silicon
carbide.
Diamond

 3-dimensional array of carbon atoms covalently

bonded in a tetrahedral arrangement.
 Strong covalent bonds give diamond its hardness.
 There are no delocalized electrons, therefore
diamond will not conduct electricity.
 There are several planes of atoms within the
crystal and diamonds are cut along these planes.
Light is reflected by these planes to give diamonds
their sparkle (total internal refraction)
2-Dimensional Network Solids
 Networks which form 2-D arrays or sheets.
 Within a sheet the atoms are held together with
covalent bonds.
 Weak van der Waals forces hold the layers together.
 These solids will also have high melting and
boiling points however they will be soft and the
layers will slide over each other allowing them to
be used as a lubricant.
 An example of this type of solid is graphite.
Graphite

 Graphite is a 2-dimensional array of carbon

atoms arranged in layers of hexagons.
 The electrons making up the “double bonds”
are actually delocalized throughout the
structure (i.e. not true double bonds)
 The layers of hexagons are held in place by van
der Waals forces (intermolecular forces).
 Graphite is soft, slippery and is used as a lubricant
because the layers can slide past each other.
 The delocalized electrons give stability to
graphite.
 The delocalized electrons are able to move freely
therefore allowing graphite to conduct electricity.
 When you write with a pencil you are breaking of
layers of the graphite.
1-Dimensional Network Solids
 These are solids that form networks in a one
dimensional array or fibre.
 They consist of long chains held together by
covalent bonds.
 The forces between adjacent chains are very weak
therefore the solids will form threads.
 They have very high melting and boiling points
due to the strong covalent bonds.
 They are solids at room temperature and are not
soluble in water.
 An example of this type of solid is asbestos.
Network Solids of Silicon
 Silicon makes up 25.7 % of the Earth’s crust.
1. Quartz
• A large 3-dimensional network with silicon
and oxygen.
• Each silicon is tetrahedrally bonded to four
oxygen atoms.
• Foreign metal ions in quartz produce
semiprecious stones such as emerald, amethyst
and garnet.
Quartz
2. Mica
• 2-dimensional sheets of silicate
• weak attractions between the layers make
mica flake easily
3. Asbestos
• Asbestos forms fibrous, stringy one-
dimensional chains.
• Can be used as a fire retardant but it is now
known to cause lung cancer