IN The Name of Allah Almighty

Database Systems
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
• DDL stands for Data Definition Language. It is used to define database structure or pattern.
• It is used to create schema, tables, indexes, constraints, etc. in the database.
• Using the DDL statements, you can create the skeleton of the database.
• Data definition language is used to store the information of metadata like the number of tables
and schemas, their names, indexes, columns in each table, constraints, etc.
• Here are some tasks that come under DDL:
• Create: It is used to create objects in the database.
• Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
• Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.
• Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.
• Rename: It is used to rename an object.
• Comment: It is used to comment on the data dictionary.
• These commands are used to update the database schema that's why they come under Data
definition language.
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)

• DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. It is used for accessing and

manipulating data in a database. It handles user requests.
• Here are some tasks that come under DML:
• Select: It is used to retrieve data from a database.
• Insert: It is used to insert data into a table.
• Update: It is used to update existing data within a table.
• Delete: It is used to delete all records from a table.
• Merge: It performs UPSERT operation, i.e., insert or update operations.
• Call: It is used to call a structured query language or a Java subprogram.
• Explain Plan: It has the parameter of explaining data.
• Lock Table: It controls concurrency.
 Data Control Language (DCL)

• Here are some tasks that come under DCL:

• Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a database.
• Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.
 Transaction Control Language (TCL)

• TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML statement. TCL can be
grouped into a logical transaction.
• Here are some tasks that come under TCL:
• Commit: It is used to save the transaction on the database.
• Rollback: It is used to restore the database to original since the last Commit.
Why We Required a Data Model

• We mentioned earlier that a schema is written using a data definition language.

• In fact, it is written in the data definition language of a particular DBMS.
• Unfortunately, this type of language is too low level to describe the data
requirements of an organization in a way that is readily understandable by a
variety of users.
• What we require is a higher-level description of the schema: that is, a data model.
Data Model

• An integrated collection of concepts for describing and manipulating data,

relationships between data, and constraints on the data in an organization.
• The purpose of a data model is to represent data and to make the data
understandable. If it does this, then it can be easily used to design a
database.
Types of Data Models

• There are three principal types of record-based logical data models:

• Relational data model
• Network data model
• Hierarchical data model
Relational Data Model

• Most widely used model by commercial data processing applications.

• It uses tables for representing data and relationships among those data.
• Data is stored in tables called relations
• Each table is a group of columns and rows where columns represent attributes of an entity and row
represents records (tuples)
• Attribute or field: Each column in a relation is called an attribute. The values of attributes should be
from the same domain.
• Tuple or record: Each row in a relation is called a tuple. A tuple defines a collection of attribute values.
Hierarchical Data Model

• It was the first DBS Model

• In the hierarchical model data is stored in a tree-like structure with each record is having one
parent record and many children
• The main drawback of this model is that it can have only one too many relationships between
nodes.
• Rarely used now.
• Example is a course can be assigned to a single student
• However students can take multiple courses.
Network data model

• This model is an extension of the hierarchical model .it was the most popular model before
the relational model.
• Network model is the same as the hierarchical model except that it has a graph-like structure
rather than a tree-based structure and is allowed to have more than one parent node.
• Supports many to many relationships
• Widely used before the relational model.
• Example: a student has two parents node cs department and library----which further has
link with college.
Functions of a DBMS

• Data storage, retrieval, and update

• A DBMS must furnish users with the ability to store, retrieve, and update data in the database.

• A user-accessible catalog
• A DBMS must furnish a catalog in which descriptions of data items are stored and which
is accessible to users.
Functions of a DBMS

• Concurrency control services

• A DBMS must furnish a mechanism to ensure that the database is updated correctly
when multiple users are updating the database concurrently.
Functions of a DBMS

• Recovery services
• A DBMS must furnish a mechanism for recovering the database in the event that the
database is damaged in any way.
Functions of a DBMS

• Authorization services
• A DBMS must furnish a mechanism to ensure that only authorized users can access the
database
Functions of a DBMS

• Integrity services
• Database integrity refers to the correctness and consistency of stored data: it can be
considered as another type of database protection. While integrity is related to security, it
has wider implications: integrity is concerned with the quality of data itself
Summary

• We have discussed three levels of Architecture, data independence, types of

data independence, data model, types of data models, and functions of
DBMS.