Covalent Compounds

Introduction to Covalent Bonding

Covalent bonds result from the sharing of electrons
between two atoms.

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 Covalent Compounds
Introduction to Covalent Bonding

Unshared electron pairs are called nonbonded

electron pairs or lone pairs.

Atoms share electrons to attain the electronic

configuration of the noble gas closest to them
in the periodic table.
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 Covalent bonding
 Fluorine has seven valence electrons
 A second F atom also has seven
 By sharing electrons
 Both end with full orbitals (stable octets)

8 Valence
electronsF F 8 Valence
electrons
 Covalent Bonding
Formed by a shared pair of electrons between
two nonmetals
n=2
- -
- -

n=1 - -
- -

- - -
-
-
+ - -
-
-
-
- -
- -

- -
- -
- -

O O O2
[He]2s22p4 [He]2s22p4

Sharing of electrons to achieve a stable octet (8 electrons in valence shell).

 Covalent Compounds
Covalent Bonding and the Periodic Table
Lewis structures are electron-dot structures for
molecules. They show the location of all valence e−.

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 Covalent Compounds
Covalent Bonding and the Periodic Table
Lewis structures are electron-dot structures for
molecules. They show the location of all valence e−.

6
 Covalent Compounds
Covalent Bonding and the Periodic Table
Lewis structures are electron-dot structures for
molecules. They show the location of all valence e−.

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 Covalent Compounds
Covalent Bonding and the Periodic Table
Covalent bonds are formed when two nonmetals
combine, or when a metalloid bonds to a nonmetal.

How many covalent bonds will a particular atom form?

•Atoms with one, two, or three valence e−
generally form one, two or three bonds,
respectively.
•Atoms with four or more valence electrons form
enough bonds to give an octet.

predicted = 8 – number of valence e−

number of bonds
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 Covalent Compounds
Covalent Bonding and the Periodic Table

Number of bonds + Number of lone pairs = 4

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 Lewis Structures
A molecular formula shows the number and identity
of all of the atoms in a compound, but not which
atoms are bonded to each other.

A Lewis structure shows the connectivity between

atoms, as well as the location of all bonding and
nonbonding valence electrons.

General rules for drawing Lewis structures:

•Draw only valence electrons.
•Give every main group element (except H) an
octet of e−.
•Give each hydrogen two e−.
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 Lewis Structures
HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure

Arrange the atoms next to each other that

Step [1]
you think are bonded together.

•Place H and halogens on the outside

boundary, since they can only form one bond.
H H
For CH4: H C H not H C H H
H

This H cannot form

two bonds.
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 Lewis Structures
HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure
•Use the common bonding patterns from Figure 4.1
to arrange the atoms

H H H
For CH5N: H C N H not H C N H
H H H

Place four atoms Place three atoms

around C, since C around N, since N
generally forms generally forms
four bonds. three bonds.
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 Lewis Structures
HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure

Step [2] Count the valence electrons.

•The sum gives the total number of e− that must

be used in the Lewis structure.

For CH3Cl: 1 C x 4e− = 4e−

3 H x 1e− = 3e−
1 Cl x 7e− = 7e−
14 total valence e−

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 Lewis Structures
HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure

Step [3] Arrange the electrons around the atoms.

•Place one bond (two e−) between every two atoms.

•For main group elements, give no more than 8 e−.

•For H, give no more than 2 e−.

•Use all remaining electrons to fill octets with lone

pairs, beginning with atoms on the outside boundary.

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 Lewis Structures
HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure

For CH3Cl: H
4 bonds x 2e− = 8 e−
H C Cl
+ 3 lone pairs x 2e− = 6 e−
H
2 e on
− 8 e− 14 e−
each H on Cl All valence e− have
been used.
•If all valence electrons are used and an atom still
does not have an octet, proceed to Step [4].

Step [4] Use multiple bonds to fill octets when

needed.
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 Lewis Structures
HOW TO Draw a Lewis Structure—Multiple Bonds

•Convert one lone pair to one bonding pair of

electrons for each two electrons needed to
complete an octet.

•A double bond contains four electrons in two

two-electron bonds.

O O

•A triple bond contains six electrons in three

two-electron bonds.

N N
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 Lewis Structures
Multiple Bonds

Example Draw the Lewis Structure for C2H4.

Step [1] Arrange the atoms.

H C C H
H H

Step [2] Count the valence e−.

2 C x 4 e− = 8 e−
4 H x 1 e− = 4 e−
12 e− total
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 Lewis Structures
Multiple Bonds

Step [3] Add the bonds and lone pairs.

5 bonds x 2 e− = 10 e−
H C C H + 1 lone pair x 2 e− = 2 e−
H H 12 e−

C still does not All valence e− have

have an octet. been used.

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 Lewis Structures
Multiple Bonds

Step [4] Change one lone pair into one bonding

pair of e–, forming a double bond.

H–C–C–H H C C H
H H H H

Answer
Each C now has an octet.

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 Lewis Structures
Multiple Bonds

Step [4] To give both C’s an octet, change one

lone pair into one bonding pair of
electrons between the two C atoms,
forming a double bond.

H–C–C–H H C C H
H H H H

Answer
Each C now has an octet.
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 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
•Most of the common elements generally follow
the octet rule.
•H is a notable exception, because it needs only
2 e− in bonding.
•Elements in group 3A do not have enough
valence e− to form an octet in a neutral molecule.

F
F B F

only 6 e− on B
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 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
•Elements in the third row have empty d orbitals
available to accept electrons.

•Thus, elements such as P and S may have

more than 8 e− around them.

O O
HO P OH HO S OH

OH O

10 e− on P 12 e− on S
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 Resonance
When drawing Lewis structures for polyatomic ions:
•Add one e− for each negative charge.
•Subtract one e− for each positive charge.

For –CN: Answer

−
C N C N C N

1 C x 4 e − = 4 e− All valence e− Each atom

are used, but has an octet.
1 N x 5 e− = 5 e−
C lacks an octet.
–1 charge = 1 e−

10 e− total
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 Resonance
Drawing Resonance Structures
•Resonance structures are two Lewis structures
having the same arrangement of atoms but a
different arrangement of electrons.
•Two resonance structures of HCO3−:

•Neither Lewis structure is an accurate

representation for HCO3−.
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 Resonance
Drawing Resonance Structures

•The true structure is a hybrid of the two resonance

structures.

•Resonance stabilizes a molecule by spreading out

lone pairs and electron pairs in multiple bonds
over a larger region of space.

•A molecule or ion that has two or more resonance

structures is resonance-stabilized.

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 Naming Covalent Compounds
HOW TO Name a Covalent Molecule

Example Name each covalent molecule:

(a) NO2 (b) N2O4

Step [1] Name the first nonmetal by its element

name and the second using the suffix
“-ide.”
(a) NO2 (b) N2O4
nitrogen oxide nitrogen oxide

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 Naming Covalent Compounds
HOW TO Name a Covalent Molecule

Step [2] Add prefixes to show the number of

atoms of each element.

•Use a prefix from Table 4.1 for each element.

•The prefix “mono-” is usually omitted.
Exception: CO is named carbon monoxide
•If the combination would place two vowels next
to each other, omit the first vowel.
mono + oxide = monoxide

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Naming Covalent Compounds
HOW TO Name a Covalent Molecule

(a) NO2

nitrogen dioxide

(b) N2O4

dinitrogen tetroxide

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 Molecular Geometry
• Molecular geometry is a three-
dimensional arrangement of
atoms in a molecule.
Valence
Shell
Electron
Planar
triangular
Tetrahedral

Pair
Repulsion Trigonal
bipyramidal

Theory Octahedral
 VSEPR
• Most important factor in
determining geometry is relative
repulsion between electron pairs.
• Molecule adopts the shape that
minimizes the electron pair
repulsions.
 Molecular Geometry
• Linear Formula= AX 2
• Trigonal Planar Formula = AX 3
• Bent Formula = : AX 2
• Tetrahedral Formula = AX 4
• Trigonal Pyramidal Formula = : AX 3
• T-shaped Formula = : AX3

Note: A –represents the central atom

 Molecular Geometry
• Trigonal Bipyramidal Formula = AX 5
• See Saw Formula = : AX 4
• Octahedral Formula = AX 6

Note: A –represents the central atom

X – represents the attached atom
 Molecular Shape
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
(VSEPR) Theory

•To determine the shape around a given atom,

first determine how many groups surround the
atom.
•A group is either an atom or a lone pair of
electrons.

•Use the VSEPR theory to determine the shape.

•The most stable arrangement keeps the groups

as far away from each other as possible.

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 Molecular Shape
Two Groups Around an Atom
•Any atom surrounded by only two groups is
linear and has a bond angle of 180o.

•An example is CO2: NOTE: Ignore multiple

bonds in predicting
geometry. Count only
atoms and lone pairs.

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 Molecular Shape
Three Groups Around an Atom
•Any atom surrounded by three groups is
trigonal planar and has bond angles of 120o.

•An example is H2CO:

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 Molecular Shape
Four Groups Around an Atom
•Any atom surrounded by four groups is
tetrahedral and has bond angles of 109.5o.

•An example is CH4:

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109.5o
Tetrahedral
Central
Atom
Central
Atom
Substituents
Substituents
Methane, CH4
 Tetrahedral
geometry

Methane, CH4
Copyright © 2007 Pearson Benjamin Cummings. All rights reserved.
Methane & Carbon Tetrachloride
molecular structural molecular ball-and-stick
formula formula shape model

H H

CH4 H C H 109.5o
C
H H
H H

Cl

CCl4 Cl C Cl

Cl
space-filling model
 Molecular Shape
Four Groups Around an Atom
•If the four groups around the atom include one
lone pair, the geometry is a trigonal pyramid
with bond angles of ~109.5o.
•An example is NH3:

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 Molecular Shape
Four Groups Around an Atom
•If the four groups around the atom include two
lone pairs, the geometry is bent and the bond
angle is 105o (i.e., close to 109.5o).

•An example is H2O:

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 AB2
Linear Molecular Shapes

AB3 AB2E
Trigonal planar Angular or Bent AB4 AB3E AB2E2
Tetrahedral Trigonal Angular
pyramidal or Bent

AB5 AB4E AB3E2 AB2E3

Trigonal bipyramidal Irregular tetrahedral T-shaped Linear
(see saw)

AB6 AB6E AB5E2

Octahedral Square pyramidal Square planar
Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
•Electronegativity is a measure of an atom’s
attraction for e− in a bond.
•It tells how much a particular atom “wants” e−.

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Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

•If the electronegativities of two bonded atoms

are equal or similar, the bond is nonpolar.

•The electrons in the bond are being shared

equally between the two atoms.
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Electronegativity and Bond Polarity
•Bonding between atoms with different electro-
negativities yields a polar covalent bond or dipole.

•The electrons in the bond are unequally shared

between the C and the O.
•e− are pulled toward O, the more electronegative
element; this is indicated by the symbol δ−.

•e− are pulled away from C, the less electronegative

element; this is indicated by the symbol δ+.
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Electronegativity and Bond Polarity

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 Polarity of Molecules
The classification of a molecule as polar or nonpolar
depends on:
•the polarity of the individual bonds
•the overall shape of the molecule

Nonpolar molecules generally have:

•no polar bonds
•individual bond dipoles that cancel

Polar molecules generally have:

•only one polar bond
•individual bond dipoles that do not cancel
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Polarity of Molecules

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