COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE

UNIT 2

Classification of computers.
 Classification of computers

• A computer is any system used to process information according to a well-defined

procedure. There are many types of computers such as analog, digital and pulse
computers.
 Analog Computers
• Analog computer is a form of computer using electronic or mechanical phenomena to model
the problem being solved by using one kind of physical quantity to represent another.
• The term is used in distinction to digital computers, in which physical or mechanical
phenomena are used to construct a finite state machine which is then used to model the
problem being solved.
• There is an intermediate group, hybrid computers, in which a digital computer is used to
control and organize inputs and outputs to and from attached analog devices. For instance
analog devices may be used to help generate initial values for iteration in computations often
performed in analog computers, by using properties of electrical resistance e.g. a simple two
variable adder can be created by two potentiometers in series.
• The first value is set by the first pot (say x ohms) and the second values is set to the second
pot (say y ohms). Measuring the resistance across the two pots will give the sum in resistance
x + y ohms.
 Pulse computers

• Is a form of computation that lies between digital and analog computation. It is

any form of computation that uses periodic electrical spikes (as opposed to binary
periodic voltages, like a digital computer), to transmit information.
• In a pulse computer, the length of time between each spike represents the data
being transferred. Pulse computation is primarily studied as part of the field of
neural networks.
• The processing unit in such a network is called a “neuron”. On the digital front,
we have types like
Microcomputers
Home computer
Servers
Minicomputer
Mainframe computer
Supercomputer
Embedded (micro controllers)
 Super Computer

• A supercomputer is a device for turning computer-bound problems into I/O bound

problem. A supercomputer is a computer that leads the world in terms of
processing capacity, particularly speed of calculation.
• The first super computers were introduced in the early 1960’s by Control Data
Corporation (CDS).
• The term super computer itself is rather fluid, and that today’s super computer
might not be tomorrow’s super.
• Software tools for distributed processing such as MPI and PVM are used on super
computers.
 Uses Super Computer
• Supercomputers are used for highly calculation – intensive jobs such as weather
forecasting, climate research (research into global warming), molecular modeling
(computing the structures and properties of chemical compounds like crystals and
polymers).
 Mainframe Computers

• Mainframes sometimes referred to as (“big irons”) are large, powerful and

expensive computers used mainly by large companies for bulk data processing
( such as bank transaction processing).
• The term arose during the early 1970s with introduction of smaller computers
such as the PDP series, which became known as minicomputers so users coined
the term “mainframe” to describe larger computers.
• Mainframe computer’s abilities are not so much defined by their CPU speed as by
their massive internal memory, large high-capacity external storage, fast high-
throughput I/O, high-quality internal engineering and resulting proven reliability,
and expensive but high-quality technical support. These systems can and do run
successfully for years without interruption with repairs.
• Mainframes support thousands of simulations users who gain access through
“dumb” terminals. Some mainframes have the ability to run (host) multiple
operating systems and thereby operate not as a single computer but as a number of
“virtual machines”.
• In this role, a single mainframe can replace dozens or hundreds of smaller PCs;
reducing management and administrative costs while` providing improved
reliability.
• Currently IBM mainframes are dominant in the market, with Hitachi and Fujitsu
following. The prices start at several hundred thousand dollars.
 Mini Computers.

• Minicomputers are largely obsolete class of multi-user computers which made up

the middle range of the computing spectrum, in between the largest multi-user
systems (mainframe computers) and the smallest single-user system (micro
computer or personal computer).
• The term evolved in the 1960s to describe the small 3rd generation computers that
became possible with the use of the newly invented integrated circuit technology.
The first successful minicomputers were Digital Equipment Corporation’s PDP-8.
• As microcomputers developed in 1970s and 80s microcomputers filled the mid-
range area between low-powered microcomputers and high capacity mainframes.
• Today at the turn of the millennium, few minicomputers are still in use, having
overtaken by 4th generation computers built using a more robust version of the
microprocessor technology that are used on PCs. The decline of the minis
happened due to the lower cost of the microprocessor based systems, and the
desire of end-users to be less reliant on inflexible minicomputer manufacturers.
 How to make computers faster.

• Use factor components

Essentially this means employing electronic circuiting that enables the fastest
possible switching between the two states i.e. on or off (1,0)
•  Reduce the distance that an electronic signal must travel.
This means increasing the density of the electronic circuiting.
• Improve the computer system architecture.
The architecture of a computer refers to the manner in which it handles data and
performs logic operations and calculation e.g. the architecture of a supercomputer is
substantially different from those of the micro.
• To implement these strategies, designers must address a major obstacle – i.e. heat
build up. Densely packed integrated circuits produce a tremendous amount of
heat. Thus cooling systems are placed in microcomputers
 Computer Components

• All modern computers are simple and complex. It is simple in the sense that over
the years many of the components used to construct the system have become
integrated with other components into fewer and fewer actual parts.
• It is complex in the sense that each part in the modern system performs many
more functions than the same types of parts in older systems.
• Here are some components needed to be looked at:

 The motherboard
 Processor
 Memory (RAM)
 Case (chasis)
 Power Supply
 Floppy Drive
 CD-ROM Drive
 Keyboard
 Mouse
 Video card
 Monitor (display Unit / VDU)
 Sound card
 Speaker
• The motherboard is the core of every computer system. All other components are
mounted on the motherboard and it controls everything in the system. The
motherboards are available in several different shapes or forms. It usually contains
the following individual components
 Processor sockets (or slots)
 Processor voltage regulators
 Motherboard chipsets
 Level 2 cache
 Memory SIMM or DIMM sockets
 Bus slots
 Clock / CMOS battery
 Super I/O chip
 Chipset
 CHIPSET

• The chipset is the main component of the motherboard and it is essentially the
motherboard circuit. It is this chipset that controls the processor host bus interface,
the L2 cache and the main memory, system bus slots.
• The chipset plays a big role in determining what sort of features a system can
support e.g. which processor you can use, types of memory, what speeds you can
run the machines and what type of system bus your system can support are all tied
into the motherboard chipset.
• The ROM BIOS contains the initial POST (Power-On Self Test) program,
bootstrap loader (which loads the operating system).
• About 90% of the chipset market is currently owned by Intel, and almost all the
Pentium series are owned by the same company. Some of the Intel’s chipset
models are
 386/486 chipset
 5th Generation (Pentium class) chipset
 
• The fifth generation chipset can also be grouped into different models.
 430 LX (Mercury).

• It was introduced in March 1993 concurrent with the 1st Pentium processor. It
came in 60 MHz and 66 MHz versions. It supported only single processor. The
memory type was the FPM (Fast Page Mode). It also supported up to 512k of L2
cache and 192 M of standard DRAM.
 430 NX (Neptune)

• Came into the system in 1994. It was the 1st chipset designed to run the second
generation Pentium system (PII). These were noted by having socket 5 processor
sockets, and an on board 3.3v/3.5v voltage regulator for both processor. That
means the 430 NX (Neptune) chipset supported dual processors.
• All systems that support dual processor are referred to as SMP (Symmetric Multi
Processing). The memory type was the FPM (Fast Page Mode). The maximum
memory that such chipset can support was 512M and 512M of cache memory
size. It also supports PCI Peripheral Component Interconnect) and AGP
(Accelerated Graphic Port).
 430 FX

• It was introduced a year after the 430NX. It is code named Triton. Its maximum
speed was 66 MHz. It is noted to be the first chipset that supported EDO
(Extended Data Out) memory. The EDO was slightly faster than the standard FPM
memory that had been used up until that time. But the cost was the same. The
Triton chipset lacked not only parity support but also supported only single CPU.
The maximum RAM speed was 128 M and 64 M of cache.
 430 HX (Triton II)

• This chipset was created by Intel as a true replacement for the powerful 430 NX
chip. It added some of the high speed memory features from the low-end 430 FX
such as the EDO memory. It also retained dual-processor support and in addition
supports parity checking to detect memory errors – Error Correcting Code (ECC).
 Adv. of HX chipset over FX

• Support for parity and ECC memory

• Dual-processor support
• Support for a full 512 M of system memory instead of 128
• Support for USB facility
• PCI compliance – allow concurrent PCI operations
• Support for 512 M of cache instead of 64M
• Independent device timing for IDE drives
• There are other chipsets; for workstations (430 KX); for Server (450 GX) and
many others.
• Sixth Generation Chipsets. 440 series.
• Meant for Pentium II and up.