Course Code: MEG 213

Course Title: Fluid Mechanics

Course Unit: 3
Lecturer: Dr. S.O. Giwa
Course Outline:
Nature and types of fluids. Physical properties of fluids.
Fluid statics. Stability of submerged and floating bodies.
Fluids flow concepts, conservation of mass, momentum,
and energy. Simple application of conservation laws.
Flow measurements, dimensionless analysis and dynamic
similarity.
Laboratory components:
• Experiments on physical properties of fluids. Fluid
statics. Stability of submerged and floating
bodies. Fluid flow, conservation of mass,
momentum energy. Simple application of
conservation laws. Flow measurements,
dimensionless analysis and dynamic similarity.
 Learning outcomes:
• This course introduces the students to basics of Fluid
Mechanics, nature and types of fluids, and physical
properties of fluids. The concepts of fluids static should be
understood including the stability of submerged and
floating bodies. Fluids flow concepts, conservation of
mass, momentum and energy should be understood with
the derivation of equations for these concepts. Simple
application of conservation laws as applied to fluid
mechanics is presented. Flow measurements,
dimensionless analysis and dynamic similarity also
presented.
 Course Materials:
Textbooks and other materials are available for
download on the Microsoft Team
Schedule of lectures:
• Week 1: Introduction and nature and types of fluids.
• Week 2: Physical properties of fluids.
• Week 3: Fluid statics.
• Week 4: Stability of submerged and floating bodies.
• Week 5 and 6: Fluids flow concepts, conservation of mass,
momentum, and energy.
• Week 7: Simple application of conservation laws.
• Week 8: Flow measurements,
• Week 9: Dimensionless analysis and dynamic similarity.
Course grade distribution:
• Tests (1 and 2) – 10 marks each = 20 marks
• Quizzes, Assignments and attendance – 10 marks
• Examination – 70 marks
• Practical – 40%
• Theory – 60%
• Total – 100 marks
• Note: minimum of 70% class attendance qualifies you for the
examination
 Nature and Types of Fluid
• What is “Fluid Mechanics”?
- A branch of Engineering Science that deals with the
behaviour of fluids at rest or in motion (as well as interaction
with solids and or other fluids at the boundaries)
• Broadly classified into statics, kinematics, and dynamics of
fluids.
• Others include hydrodynamics, hydraulics, gas dynamics,
and aerodynamics.
Various classifications of fluid mechanics:
1. Fluid statics: It deals with the behaviour of fluids at rest.
2. Fluid kinematics: It deals with motion of fluids without considering the forces
causing flow.
3. Fluid dynamics: It deals with fluid flow subjected to forces.
4. Hydrodynamics: It deals with the motion of incompressible fluids, such as liquids
(mainly water) and gases at low
speeds.
5. Hydraulics: It deals with liquid flows, for example, flows in pipes and open
channel.
6. Gas dynamics: It deals with the fluid flows that undergo significant density
changes, for example, flows of gases
through nozzles at high speeds.
7. Aerodynamics: It mainly deals with the flow of air over bodies, like automobiles,
aircrafts, spacecrafts and rockets
• Existence of matter (fluid and solid)
• Fluid as liquid and gas
• What is a “fluid”?
- A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when subjected
to shear forces or external shearing force.
- The act of continuous deformation is called the flow.
- Fluid may be defined as a substance which is capable of flowing and
it includes liquids and gases.
- Deformation rate depends on the applied shear force and fluid
properties.
Characteristics of a fluid:
- A fluid does not have its own shape but it conforms to the
shape of the container.
- The mass of a fluid has definite volume at particular
temperature and pressure
- A fluid undergoes deformation as long as the shear force
applied continues
Classifications of fluids:
• Liquid, gas, and vapour
• Ideal and real fluids
Application of Fluid Mechanics:
• Pumps, turbines, airplanes, ships, submarines, fans, blowers,
windmills, pipes,
• Engines, jets, rockets, sprinklers, rivers, designing of buildings
and bridges,
• Hydraulic systems, pneumatic systems, artificial hearts,
breathing machines,
• Automobiles like components related with transportation of the
fuel, hydraulic brakes, lubrication systems and cooling systems,
• Pumping of blood in human body, naturally occurring flows such
as in meteorology, oceanography, hydrology and many more
Next class:
• Physical properties of fluids
- Density, viscosity, specific gravity, vapour pressure,
surface tension, capillarity, compressibility, etc.
Lecture 2: Physical properties of fluids
1. Mass density or density
The mass density or density (rho) ρ, of a fluid is the ratio of mass (m)
of a fluid to its volume (v) at standard temperature and pressure.
Mathematically, ρ = m/v [kg/m3]
2. Specific weight or weight per unit volume
Mathematically, wc = weight/volume = mg/v = ρvg/v = ρg [N/m3]
3. Specific density
It is the ratio of the density of a liquid to that of water.
Mathematically, S = density of liquid/density of water = ρ/ρwater [-]
4. Specific volume
It is the volume per unit of mass of fluid denoted by ϑ
Mathematically, ϑ = V/m = 1/ρ [m3/kg]
5. Specific gravity
It is the ratio of specific weight of a liquid to the specific weight of
a standard fluid. It is denoted by S.
Mathematically,
(for liquid) or (for gas)
6. Viscosity
- This is the property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of one
layer of fluid over an adjacent layer (shearing stresses).
- It is a measure of the internal fluid friction which causes resistance to flow.
- The viscosity is due to cohesion and molecular momentum transfer between fluid
layers.
- τ (shear stress)= F/A

ʋ (kinematic viscosity) = µ(dynamic viscosity)

/ρ (density)
- ʋ (kinematic viscosity) [m2/s]
- µ(dynamic viscosity) [Pa.s]
* Fluids which obey Newton’s law of viscosity are known as
Newtonian fluid, for example, water, air and molten metals.
* Fluids which do not obey this law are known as non-Newtonian
fluids, for example, human blood and thick lubricating oils.
* The variation of shear stress (τ) with velocity gradient (du/dy) for
Newtonian fluid is a straight line whose slope (y/x) is the viscosity of
the fluid.
Assignment 1
1. What is your understanding of these types of fluids
a. Newtonian fluids, b. Non-Newtonian, c. plastic fluids, d. ideal fluids
2. What do you understand by
a. Incompressible fluids and b. compressible fluids
Note
1. (µ=0 & ∂ρ=0)

When n < 1 (for Newtonian fluids) – Pseudoplastics

When n >1 (for Newtonian fluids) – dilatants
7. Surface tension
• It is a force which manifests itself only in liquids at an interface
(liquid-gas interface).
• It is force per unit length (N/m)
• The force due to surface tension is surface tension multiplied by the
length or circumference in case of a bubble or droplet of water
Pressure force exerted in the droplet, F = 2πRσ
Force due to surface tension, F = pπR2

Pressure force = tension force;

8. Capillary action
* Capillarity is a phenomenon by which a liquid (depending upon its
specific gravity) rises into a thin glass tube above or below its general
level.
* This phenomenon is due to the combined effect of cohesion and
adhesion of liquid particles.
Tension force = weight of liquid column

(where = 0 for water and = 1)

9. Compressibility and bulk modulus
Compressibility is when fluids undergo a change in volume under the
action of external pressure.
- It reduces with an increase in pressure of fluid.
- The volume modulus increases with an increase in pressure.
Bulk modulus of elasticity is the ratio of compressive stress to
volumetric strain
- It is an indicator of the elasticity of fluids.
* Compressibility is the reciprocal of bulk modulus of elasticity.
Compressibility and bulk modulus
Volumetric strain = - dV/V
(negative sign = V as P
Bulk modulus, K = dP/(- dV/V)
Compressibility = 1/K
• K of a fluid is not constant
• K as pressure
• K is affected by temperature (for liquid K as
temperature while for gas K as temperature
Examples:
Example 5
Example 6
Example 7
Example 8
Example 9
Example 10
Example 11
Example 12
Example 13
Example 14
Example 15
 Fluid Pressure and Measurement
- A fluid in a vessel always exerts a normal force on the surfaces.
- For liquids, this force is mainly due to specific weight of the liquid.
- For gases it is mainly because of molecular activity.
- The normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area is called “fluid
pressure” OR static or hydrostatic pressure.
- Fluid statics deals with the study of fluid at absolute rest or relative
rest.
- Mathematically, P = F/A = ρvg/A
= ρ(Ah)g/A = ρgh
*Pressure intensity directly relates with depth (h)
Fluid pressure can be expressed as;
1. Force per unit area (N/m2),
2. Equivalent static head (h) = P/ρg
Pascal’s law
States that pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a fluid at rest
is equal in all directions.
Px = Py = Pz
Hydrostatic law
States that the rate of increase of pressure in a vertically downward
direction must be equal to specific weight of the fluid at that point

h = P/ρg
In case the pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is pa, then the pressure at
any point below it at a depth h will be given by the following
expression.
p = pa + ρgh = pa + wh
If h1 and h2 be the heights of the columns of liquids of weight densities w1 and w2,
respectively which develop the same pressure p at any point, we get the following
expression.
p = w1h1 = w2h2

If S1 and S2 be the specific gravities of the two liquids, then Equation (2.6) is as
follows.
p = S1h1 = S2h2
Example 1
Example 2
 ATMOSPHERIC, ABSOLUTE, GAUGE AND VACUUM PRESSURES
Atmospheric pressure (patm) may be defined as a normal pressure
exerted by atmospheric air on all surfaces with which it is in contact
* Generally, fluid pressures are measured by taking either absolute zero pressure (or
complete vacuum) as datum or local atmospheric pressure as datum.
Patm = ρgh
Absolute pressure: When pressure is measured
above absolute zero, it is called absolute pressure
(Pabs) and all values of absolute pressure are positive
Gauge pressure: When pressure is measured by
taking atmospheric pressure as datum, it is called
gauge pressure and it is measured by pressure gauges
Vacuum pressure: When the pressure of a fluid is below atmospheric
pressure, it is called vacuum pressure (or negative gauge pressure) and
it is measured by a vacuum gauge.
Mathematically,
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure
Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure - Vacuum pressure
Example 3
Example 4
Example 5
Example 6
Example 7
Example 8
 Measurement of Pressure
Pressure of a fluid can be measured by the following:
1. Manometer: a device used for measuring the pressure at a point
in a fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another
column fluid
a. Simple manometers
(i) Piezometer, (ii) U-tube manometer and (iii) Single column
manometer
b. Differential manometers
(i) U-tube differential manometer, (ii) Inverted U-tube differential
manometer and (iii) Micromanometer.
2. Mechanical gauges: are devices used to measure
pressure by balancing the fluid column by spring or
dead weight. (high pressure measurement with low
precision)
(i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge
(ii) Diaphragm pressure gauge
(iii) Bellow pressure gauge
(iv) Dead-weight pressure gauge
Simple Manometers
Piezometer
A piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which is used
to measure the moderate pressure of a liquid.
- A single column manometer

p = ρgh
Example 9
U-tube manometer
A U-tube manometer consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape, where
one end is connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured and
the other end remains open to the atmosphere.
• The U-tube contains a liquid of specific gravity greater than that of
the fluid whose pressure is to be measured.
* for measuring high pressure
• A U-tube manometer can be used to measure both the gauge pressure
and vacuum
pressure.
Gauge pressure
(a) p + ρ1gh1 = ρ2gh2
p = ρ2gh2 - ρ1gh1

Vacuum pressure
(b) p + ρ1gh1 + ρ2gh2 = 0
p = - (ρ1gh1 + ρ2gh2)
Example 10
Example 11
Example 12
Example 13
Single Column Manometer
* The U-tube manometers require readings of liquid levels at two points
since a change in pressure causes a rise of liquid in one limb of the
manometer and a drop in the other.
* This difficulty can be overcome by using single column manometer.
* A single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube
manometer.
* One of the two limbs is made a large reservoir having a cross-
sectional area of about 100 times to that of area of the narrow tube in
the other limb.
Example 14
Example 15
Differential Manometer
• A differential manometer is used to measure the difference of
pressures in two pipes or between two points in a pipeline.
• Generally, a differential manometer consists of a bent glass tube (U-
tube) containing a heavy liquid (usually mercury).
• The two ends of the U-tube are connected to the two gauge points
between which the pressure difference is to be measured.
• None of the ends of the limbs of a differential manometer are exposed
to the atmosphere.
• These manometers are used in venturi meters and orifice or nozzle
flow meters.
Case (a)

Case (b)
Example 16
Example 17
What do you understand by “Engineering”?
The atmospheric pressure (patm) may be defined as a normal pressure exerted by atmospheric
air on all surfaces with which it is in contact
What do you understand by “Engineering”?