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Database Systems Lec 5

Relational algebra and calculus provide formal query languages for relational databases. Relational algebra uses operators like selection, projection, union, and set difference to compose queries as step-by-step procedures, while relational calculus allows users to declaratively describe what data is wanted. Both help form the basis for SQL and optimize query processing.

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15 views23 pages

Database Systems Lec 5

Relational algebra and calculus provide formal query languages for relational databases. Relational algebra uses operators like selection, projection, union, and set difference to compose queries as step-by-step procedures, while relational calculus allows users to declaratively describe what data is wanted. Both help form the basis for SQL and optimize query processing.

Uploaded by

Alina Shafiq
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter 4

Relational Algebra
and Calculus
Query Languages Are specialized
languages for asking
(e.g. SQL) questions.

Relational Algebra and


Calculus

Procedural: Declarative: Calculus


Algebra
Instance Instances
s of
Relations
Query of
A Relation
Relational Algebra
• Queries are composed using a collection
of operators.
• Every operator:
– Accepts one or two relation instances
– Returns a relation instance.
• Compose relational algebra expression
• Each query describes a step-by-step
procedure for computing the
desired answer.
Relational Query Languages
• Query languages: Allow manipulation and
retrieval of data from a database.
• Relational model supports simple, powerful QLs:
– Strong formal foundation based on logic.
– Allows for much optimization.
• Query Languages != programming languages!
– QLs not expected to be “Turing complete”.
– QLs not intended to be used for complex calculations.
– QLs support easy, efficient access to large data sets.
Formal Relational Query Languages

Two mathematical Query Languages form the


basis for “real” languages (e.g. SQL), and for
implementation:
Relational Algebra: More operational, very
useful for representing execution plans.
 Relational Calculus: Lets users describe
what they want, rather than how to
compute it. (Non-operational, declarative.)
 Understanding Algebra & Calculus is key to
 understanding SQL, query processing!
Relational Algebra
• Five basic operators
– Selection
– Projection
– Union
– Cross-product
– Difference
Relational Algebra Operations

Pearson Education © 2014 8


Selection
 (Input)
Selection_Criteria
A relation instance
Manipulates data in a single relation

The selection operator specifies the tuples to retain through selection


criteria.

A boolean combination (i.e. using V and ᴧ) of terms

Attribute op or attribute1 op attribute2


constant
< , <=, =, ≠, >=, or >
Selection
S2
sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0  rating (S2)
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0 8
58 rusty 10 35.0

sid sname rating age


28 yuppy 9 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
Projection
 (Input)
fields

Allows us to extract columns from a relation


Example:
sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0 age
31 lubber 8 55.5  age 35.0
44 guppy 5 35.0 (S2) 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0

 sname,rating ( rating  8 (S 2))

sname rating
yuppy 9
rusty 10
Set Operations
• Takes as input two relation instances
• Four standard operations
– Union
– Intersection
– Set-difference
– Cross-product
• Union, intersection, and difference
require the two input set to be union
compatible
– They have the same number of fields
– corresponding fields, taken in order from left
to right, have the same domains
Set Operation: Union
• R U S returns relation instance
containing all tuples that occur in
either relation instance R or S, or both.
• R and S must be union compatible.
• Schema of the result is defined to be
that of R.
S1
Set Operation: Union S2
sid sname rating age sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0 28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 rusty 10 35.0

sid sname rating age


22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5 S1 U S2
58 rusty 10 35.0
44 guppy 5 35.0
28 yuppy 9 35.0
Set Operation: Intersection
• R ⋂ S: returns a relation instance
containing all tuples that occur in both R
and S.
• R and S must be union compatible.
• Schema of the result is that of R.
Set Operation: Intersection
S1 S2
sid sname rating age sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0 28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 rusty 10 35.0

sid sname rating age


31 lubber 8 55.5 S1 ⋂ S2
58 rusty 10 35.0
Set Operation: Set-Difference
• R – S: returns a relation instance
containing all tuples that occur in R
but not in S.
• R and S must be union-compatible.
• Scheme of the result is the schema of
R.
Set Operation: Set-Difference
S1 S2
sid sname rating age sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0 28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 rusty 10 35.0

S1 – S2
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
Set Operation: Cross-Product
• R x S: Returns a relation instance whose
scheme contains:
– All the fields of R (in the same order as
they appear in R)
– All the fields os S (in the same order as
they
appear in S)
• The result contains one tuple <r,s> for each
pair with r ⋳ R and s ⋳ S
• Basically, it is the Cartesian product.
• Fields of the same name are unnamed.
Set Operation: Cross-Product
S1 R1
sid sname rating age
sid bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0
22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0
S1 x R1
(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96
Renaming
• Name conflict can arise in some
situations
• It is convenient to be able to give names
to the fields of a relation instance
defined by a relational algebra
expression.
(R(F),E)
•Take arbitrary relational expression E
• Returns an instance of a new relation R
• R is the result of E except that some fields are renamed
• Renaming list has the form (oldname  newname or position 
newname)
Renaming
(C(1sid1,5sid2),S1
R1)sname rating age (sid) bid day
(sid)
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96

sid1 sname rating age sid2 bid day


22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96

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