Communication Network

Models
DR. SHUVABRATA BANDOAPADHAYA

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 What it is?
A network model reflects a design or architecture to accomplish communication
between different systems.
A network model usually consists of layers.
Each layer of a model represents specific functionality.
Within the layers of a model, there are usually protocols (a set of rules or a language)
specified to implement specific tasks.
Thus, a layer is normally a collection of protocols.

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 Concept of Layered Architecture
The complex networking operation is
divided into number of smaller and
manageable sub-operations.
This process is known as layering where each
of them is performed separately by
independent layer.
Each layer provides a service to the layer
above it in the protocol specification.
Data is Encapsulated with the necessary
protocol information as it moves down the
layers before network transit.

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Example of Layering
approach in real life

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 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model
International standard organization (ISO)
established a committee in 1977 to
develop an architecture for computer
communication.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
reference model is the result of this
effort.
In 1984, the OSI reference model was
approved as an international standard for
communications architecture.

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Information Exchange through OSI Model
• The process starts at layer 7 (the application layer), then
moves from layer to layer in descending, sequential order.
• At each layer, a header, or possibly a trailer, can be added
to the data unit.
• When the formatted data unit passes through the physical
layer (layer 1), it is changed into an electromagnetic signal
and transported along a physical link.
• Upon reaching its destination, the signal passes into layer
1 and is transformed back into digital form.
• The data units then move back up through the OSI layers.
• As each block of data reaches the next higher layer, the
headers and trailers attached to it at the corresponding
sending layer are removed, and actions appropriate to that
layer are taken.
• By the time it reaches layer 7, the message is again in
original form and is available to the recipient.
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Encapsulation
• The data portion of a packet at
level N - 1 carries the whole
packet (data and header and
maybe trailer) from level N.
• The concept is called
encapsulation.
• The level N - 1 is not aware of
which part of the encapsulated
packet is data and which part is
the header or trailer.
• For level N - 1, the whole packet
coming from level N is treated as
one integral unit.

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 Application Layer
The application layer is
responsible for providing
services to the user.
It provides user interfaces and
support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file
access and transfer, shared
database management.

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Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression,
and encryption.

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Session Layer
The session layer establishes, manages and terminate the session.
It is responsible for dialog control and synchronization.

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 Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the end-to-end communication (delivery of a message from
one process to another.)
Segmentation and Reassembling :
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units (segments) so that they are handled
more efficiently by the network layer.
Each segment contains sequence number, which enables this layer in reassembling the message.
Message is reassembled correctly upon arrival at the destination and replaces packets which were
lost in transmission.
Flow Control : In this layer, flow control is performed end to end.
Error Control : Error Control is performed end to end in this layer to ensure that the complete
message arrives at the receiving transport layer without any error.
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Network Layer
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of individual packets from the
source host to the destination host via number of intermediate nodes.
Network layer is responsible for providing logical address known as IP address.

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 Data link Layer
The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next.
This layer is divided in to two sub-layers
i. Logical Link Control (LLC): It deals with protocols, flow-control, and error control
ii. Media Access Control (MAC): It deals with actual control of media

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Hop-to-hop Delivery

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Physical Layer
Provides physical interface for transmission of information.
The physical layer is responsible for movements of individual bits
from one hop (node) to the next.

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TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) Model
TCP/IP model is a concise version of the OSI
model. 
It was designed and developed by Department
of Defense (DoD) in 1960s.
It contains four layers:
1. Process/Application Layer
2. Host-to-Host/Transport Layer
3. Internet Layer
4. Network Access/Link Layer
(Data link layer + Physical Layer)
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Conceptual data flow:
• Consider a simple network topology of two hosts
(A and B) connected by a link between their
respective routers.

• The application on each host executes read and

• Most details of the communication are hidden

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Application Layer
This layer performs the functions of top three layers of the OSI model:
Application, Presentation and Session Layer.
It is responsible for node-to-node communication and controls user-interface
specifications.
Some of the protocols present in this layer are:
1. HTTP (Hypertext transfer protocol)
2. HTTPS (Hypertext transfer protocol – secure)
3. FTP (File transfer protocol)
4. Telnet (TELecomunications NETwork)
5. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
6. SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol)

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Transport Layer
It is responsible for end-to-end communication and error-free delivery of data. 
This layer divides the entire data into number of small parts called Segment.
Connection Control : It includes 2 types :
1. Connectionless Protocol : Each segment is considered as an independent entity
and delivered to the transport layer at the destination machine. It is very simple
to implement. However, its reliability is less. Example: User Datagram Protocol
(UDP).

2. Connection Oriented Protocol : Before delivering packets, connection is made

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 Internet Layer
This layer parallels the functions of OSI’s Network layer.
 It defines the protocols which are responsible for logical transmission of data over the entire network.
It adds logical address (IP address) of source and destination to each segment forming a data packet.
The main protocols residing at this layer are :
1. IP (Internet Protocol)- It is responsible for delivering packets from the source host to the destination
host by looking at the IP addresses in the packet headers.
2. IP has 2 versions: IPv4 and IPv6.
3. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol)- It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is responsible
for providing hosts with information about network problems.
4. ARP (Address Resolution Protocol)- Its job is to find the hardware address of a host from a known IP
address. ARP has several types: Reverse ARP, Proxy ARP, Gratuitous ARP and Inverse ARP.

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 Network Access Layer
This layer corresponds to the combination of Data Link Layer and Physical Layer of the OSI
model.
It looks out for hardware addressing and the protocols present in this layer allows for the
physical transmission of data.
It receives packets from internet layer, encapsulate the physical addresses of two ends of the
hop to form a frame.
Physical address is called as MAC (medium access control) address.

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 Network Access Layer (cont..)
The logical bits in the frames are converted into physical
bits depending on the characteristics of the channel.
For Optical fiber=> Light signal

RF channel => Electromagnetic signal

Coaxial cable => Line coding

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