Chapter 2

Basic Elements of C++

C++ Programming: Program Design Including Data Structures, Eighth Edition

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 Objectives (1 of 3)

• In this chapter, you will:

• Become familiar with the basic components of a C++ program, including functions,
special symbols, and identifiers
• Explore simple data types
• Discover how to use arithmetic operators
• Examine how a program evaluates arithmetic expressions
• Become familiar with the string data type
• Learn what an assignment statement is and what it does

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 Objectives (2 of 3)

• Learn about variable declaration

• Discover how to input data into memory using input statements
• Become familiar with the use of increment and decrement operators
• Examine ways to output results using output statements
• Learn how to use preprocessor directives and why they are necessary

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 Objectives (3 of 3)

• Learn how to debug syntax errors

• Explore how to properly structure a program, including using comments to document
a program
• Become familiar with compound statements
• Learn how to write a C++ program

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 Introduction

• Computer program
• A sequence of statements whose objective is to accomplish a task
• Programming
• The process of planning and creating a program
• Real-world analogy: a recipe for cooking

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 A Quick Look at a C++ Program (1 of 5)

EXAMPLE 2-1

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 A Quick Look at a C++ Program (2 of 5)

• Sample Run:
Program to compute and output the perimeter and area of a rectangle.
Length = 6
Width = 4
Perimeter = 20
Area = 24

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 A Quick Look at a C++ Program (3 of 5)

FIGURE 2-1 Various parts of a C++ program

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 A Quick Look at a C++ Program (4 of 5)

FIGURE 2-1 Various parts of a C++ program (continued)

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 A Quick Look at a C++ Program (5 of 5)

• Variable: a memory location whose contents can be changed

FIGURE 2-3 Memory allocation

FIGURE 2-4 Memory spaces after the statement length = 6.0; executes

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 The Basics of a C++ Program

• Subprogram (or function): collection of statements

• When executed, accomplishes something
• May be predefined or standard
• Syntax rules: rules that specify which statements (instructions) are legal or valid
• Semantic rules: determine the meaning of the instructions
• Programming language: a set of rules, symbols, and special words

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 Comments

• Comments are for the reader, not the compiler

• Two types
• Single line: begins with //

• Multiple line: enclosed between /* and */

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 Special Symbols

• A token is the smallest individual unit of a program written in any language

• C++ tokens include special symbols, word symbols, and identifiers
• Special symbols in C++ include:

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 Reserved Words (Keywords)

• Reserved word symbols (or keywords):

• Cannot be redefined within a program
• Cannot be used for anything other than their intended use
• Examples include:
• int
• float
• double
• char
• const
• void
• return

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 Identifiers (1 of 2)

• An identifier is the name of something that appears in a program

• Consists of letters, digits, and the underscore character (_)
• Must begin with a letter or underscore
• C++ is case sensitive
• NUMBER is not the same as number
• Two predefined identifiers are cout and cin
• Unlike reserved words, predefined identifiers may be redefined, but it is not a
good idea

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 Identifiers (2 of 2)

• Legal identifiers in C++

• first
• conversion
• payRate
TABLE 2-1 Examples of Illegal Identifiers

Illegal Identifier Reason A Correct Identifier

employee Salary
There can be no space between employeeSalary
employee and Salary.
Hello!
The exclamation mark cannot Hello
be used in an identifier.
one+two
The symbol + cannot be used in onePlusTwo
an identifier.
2nd
An identifier cannot begin with second
a digit.

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 Whitespaces

• Every C++ program contains whitespaces

• Include blanks, tabs, and newline characters
• Whitespaces separate special symbols, reserved words, and identifiers
• Proper utilization of whitespaces is important
• Can be used to make the program more readable

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 Data Types

• A data type is set of values together with a set of allowed operations

• C++ data types fall into three categories:
• Simple data type
• Structured data type
• Pointers

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 Simple Data Types (1 of 2)

• Three categories of simple data

• Integral: integers (numbers without a decimal)
- Can be further categorized: char, short, int, long, bool, unsigned char, unsigned
short, unsigned int, unsigned long
• Floating-point: decimal numbers
• Enumeration: a user-defined data type

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 Simple Data Types (2 of 2)

TABLE 2-2 Values and Memory Allocation for Simple Data Types

• Different compilers may allow different ranges of values

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 int Data Type

• Examples
• -6728
• 0
• 78
• +763
• Positive integers do not require a + sign
• A comma cannot be used within an integer
• Commas are only used for separating items in a list

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 bool Data Type

• bool type
• Two values: true and false
• Purpose: to manipulate logical (Boolean) expressions
• true and false
• Logical values
• bool, true, and false
• Reserved words

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 char Data Type (1 of 2)

• Data type char is the smallest integral data type

• It is used for single characters: letters, digits, and special symbols
• Each character is enclosed in single quotes
•
• A blank space is a character
• Written ' ', with a space left between the single quotes

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 char Data Type (2 of 2)

• Different character data sets exist

• ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange
• Each of 128 values in ASCII code set represents a different character
• Characters have a predefined ordering based on the ASCII numeric value
• Collating sequence: ordering of characters based on the character set code

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 Floating-Point Data Types (1 of 3)

• C++ uses scientific notation to represent real numbers (floating-point notation)

TABLE 2-3 Examples of Decimal Numbers in Scientific and C11 Floating-Point Notations

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 Floating-Point Data Types (2 of 3)

• float: represents any real number

• Range:
• double: represents any real number
• Range:
• Minimum and maximum values of data types are system dependent

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 Floating-Point Data Types (3 of 3)

• Maximum number of significant digits (decimal places) for float values: 6 or 7

• Maximum number of significant digits for double: 15
• Precision: maximum number of significant digits
• float values are called single precision
• double values are called double precision

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 Data Types, Variables, and Assignment Statements

• To declare a variable, must specify its data type

• Syntax rule to declare a variable is:
• dataType identifier;
• Examples include:
int counter;
double interestRate;
char grade;
• Assignment statement has the form: variable = expression
• Example: interestRate = 0.05;

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 Arithmetic Operators, Operator Precedence, and Expressions (1 of 2)

• C++ arithmetic operators include:

+ addition
- subtraction (or negation)
* multiplication
/ division
% mod (modulus or remainder)
• +, -, *, and / can be used with integral and floating-point data types
• Modulus (%) can only be used with integral data types

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 Arithmetic Operators, Operator Precedence, and Expressions (2 of 2)

• When you use / with integral data types, the integral result is truncated (no
rounding)
• Arithmetic expressions contain values and arithmetic operators
• Operands are the numbers appearing in the expressions
• Operators can be unary (one operand) or binary (two operands)

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 Order of Precedence

• All operations inside () are evaluated first

• *, /, and % are at the same level of precedence and are evaluated next
• + and - have the same level of precedence and are evaluated last
• When operators are on the same level
• Operations are performed from left to right (associativity)

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 Expressions

• Integral expression: all operands are integers

• Yields an integral result
• Example: 2 + 3 * 5
• Floating-point (decimal) expression: all operands are floating-point
• Yields a floating-point result
• Example: 12.8 * 17.5 - 34.50

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 Mixed Expressions (1 of 2)

• Mixed expression
• Has operands of different data types
• Contains integers and floating-point
• Examples of mixed expressions
2 + 3.5
6 / 4 + 3.9
5.4 * 2 – 13.6 + 18 / 2

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 Mixed Expressions (2 of 2)

• Evaluation rules
• If operator has same types of operands
- The operator is evaluated according to the type of the operands
• If operator has both types of operands
- Integer is changed to floating-point
- Operator is evaluated
- Result is floating-point
• Entire expression is evaluated according to precedence rules

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 Type Conversion (Casting) (1 of 2)

• Implicit type coercion: when the value of one type is automatically changed to
another type
• Cast operator (also called type conversion or type casting): provides explicit
type conversion
• static_cast<dataTypeName>(expression)

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 Type Conversion (Casting) (2 of 2)

EXAMPLE 2-9

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 string Type

• Data type string is a programmer-defined type supplied in ANSI/ISO

Standard C++ library
• A string is a sequence of zero or more characters enclosed in double quotation
marks
• A null (or empty) string is a string with no characters
• Each character has a relative position in the string
• Position of first character is 0
• The length of a string is the number of characters in it
• Example: length of "William Jacob" is 13

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 Variables, Assignment Statements, and Input Statements

• Data must be loaded into main memory before it can be manipulated

• Storing data in memory is a two-step process:
1. Instruct the computer to allocate memory
2. Include statements in the program to put data into the allocated memory

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 Allocating Memory with Constants and Variables (1 of2)

• Named constant: memory location whose content cannot change during

execution
• Syntax to declare a named constant

• In C++, const is a reserved word

EXAMPLE 2-11
Consider the following C++ statements:

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 Allocating Memory with Constants and Variables (2 of 2)

• Variable: memory location whose content may change during execution

• Syntax to declare one or multiple variables

EXAMPLE 2-12
Consider the following statements:

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 Putting Data into Variables

• Ways to place data into a variable

• Use C++’s assignment statement
• Use input (read) statements

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 Assignment Statement (1 of 4)

• The assignment statement takes the form:

• Expression is evaluated and its value is assigned to the variable on the left side
• A variable is said to be initialized the first time a value is placed into it
• In C++, = is called the assignment operator

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 Assignment Statement (2 of 4)

EXAMPLE 2-13
Suppose you have the following variable declarations:
int num1, num2;
double sale;
char first;
string str;
Now consider the following assignment statements:
num1 = 4;
num2 = 4 * 5 - 11;
sale = 0.02 * 1000;
first = 'D';
str = "It is a sunny day.";

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 Assignment Statement (3 of 4)

• Example 2-14 illustrates a walk-through (tracing values through a sequence)

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 Assignment Statement (4 of 4)

• Given int variables x, y, and z. How is this legal C++ statement evaluated?
x = y = z
• The assignment operator is evaluated from right to left
• The associativity of the assignment operator is from right to left

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 Saving and Using the Value of an Expression

• Declare a variable of the appropriate data type

• Assign the value of the expression to the variable that was declared
• Use the assignment statement
• Wherever the value of the expression is needed, use the variable holding the
value

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 Declaring and Initializing Variables

• Not all types of variables are initialized automatically

• Variables can be initialized when declared:
int first = 13, second = 10;
char ch = ' ';
double x = 12.6;
• All variables must be initialized before they are used
• But not necessarily during declaration

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 Input (Read) Statement (1 of 3)

• cin is used with to gather one or more inputs

• This is called an input (read) statement

• The stream extraction operator is
• For example, if miles is a double variable:

• Causes the computer to get a value of type double and places it in the variable miles

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 Input (Read) Statement (2 of 3)

• Using more than one variable in cin allows more than one value to be read at
a time
• Example: if feet and inches are variables of type int, this statement:

• Inputs two integers from the keyboard

• Places them in variables feet and inches respectively

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 Input (Read) Statement (3 of 3)

EXAMPLE 2-17
Suppose we have the following statements:
int feet;
int inches;
Suppose the input is:
23 7
Next, consider the following statement:

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 Increment and Decrement Operators

• Increment operator (++): increase variable by 1

• Pre-increment: ++variable
• Post-increment: variable++
• Decrement operator: (--) decrease variable by 1
• Pre-decrement: --variable
• Post-decrement: variable--
• What is the difference between the following?

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 Output (1 of 4)

• The syntax of cout and is:

• Called an output statement

• The stream insertion operator is
• Expression evaluated and its value is printed at the current cursor position on
the screen

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 Output (2 of 4)

• A manipulator is used to format the output

• Example: endl causes the insertion point to move to beginning of next line
EXAMPLE 2-21
Consider the following statements. The output is shown to the right of each
statement.

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 Output (3 of 4)

• The new line character (new line escape sequence) is '\n'

• May appear anywhere in the string
• Examples

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 Output (4 of 4)

TABLE 2-4 Commonly Used Escape Sequences

Escape Sequence Description

\n Newline Cursor moves to the beginning of the next line
\t Tab Cursor moves to the next tab stop
\b Backspace Cursor moves one space to the left

Return Cursor moves to the beginning of the current line (not the
\r next line)
\\ Backslash Backslash is printed
\' Single quotation Single quotation mark is printed
\" Double quotation Double quotation mark is printed

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 Preprocessor Directives (1 of 2)

• C++ has a small number of operations

• Many functions and symbols needed to run a C++ program are provided as
collection of libraries
• Every library has a name and is referred to by a header file
• Preprocessor directives are processed by the preprocessor program
• All preprocessor commands begin with #
• No semicolon is placed at the end of these commands

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 Preprocessor Directives (2 of 2)

• Syntax to include a header file

• For example:

• Causes the preprocessor to include the header file iostream in the program
• Preprocessor commands are processed before the program goes through the
compiler

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 namespace and Using cin and cout in a Program

• cin and cout are declared in the header file iostream, but within std
namespace
• To use cin and cout in a program, use the following two statements:

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 Using the string Data Type in a Program

• To use the string type, you need to access its definition from the header file
string
• Include the following preprocessor directive:

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 Creating a C++ Program (1 of 3)

• A C++ program is a collection of functions, one of which is the function main

• The syntax of the function main used in this book has this form:

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 Creating a C++ Program (2 of 3)

• Source code is comprised of preprocessor directives and program statements

• The source code file (source file) contains the source code
• The compiler generates the object code (file extension .obj)
• Executable code (file extension .exe) results when object code is linked with
the system resources
• The first line of the function main is called the heading of the function:
int main()

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 Creating a C++ Program (3 of 3)

• The statements enclosed between the curly braces ({ and }) form the body of
the function
• A C++ program contains two types of statements:
• Declaration statements declare things, such as variables
• Executable statements perform calculations, manipulate data, create output, accept
input, etc.

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 Debugging: Understanding and Fixing Syntax Errors (1 of 2)

• Sample program with line numbers added on the left

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 Debugging: Understanding and Fixing Syntax Errors (2 of 2)

• Compile the program

• Compiler will identify the syntax errors
• The line numbers where the errors occur are specified:
ExampleCh2_Syntax_Errors.cpp
c:\examplech2_syntax_errors.cpp(9): error C2146: syntax error:
missing ';' before identifier 'num'
c:\examplech2_syntax_errors.cpp(11): error C2065: 'tempNum':
undeclared identifier

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 Program Style and Form: Syntax

• Syntax rules indicate what is legal and what is not legal

• Errors in syntax are found in compilation

• Compilation errors would occur at:

• Line 2 (missing semicolon)
• Line 4 (identifier w used but not declared)

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 Use of Blanks

• In C++, you use one or more blanks to separate numbers when data is input
• Blanks are also used to separate reserved words and identifiers from each other
and from other symbols
• Blanks must never appear within a reserved word or identifier

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 Use of Semicolons, Brackets, and Commas

• All C++ statements end with a semicolon

• Also called a statement terminator
• { and } are not C++ statements
• Can be regarded as delimiters
• Commas separate items in a list
• Declaring more than one variable following a data type

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 Semantics

• Semantics: set of rules that gives meaning to a language

• Possible to remove all syntax errors in a program and still not have it run
• Even if it runs, it may still not do what you meant it to do
• Example: and
• Both are syntactically correct expressions but have different meanings

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 Naming Identifiers

• Identifiers can be self-documenting

• CENTIMETERS_PER_INCH
• Avoid run-together words
• annualsale
• Solutions may include:
• Capitalizing the beginning of each new word: annualSale
• Inserting an underscore just before a new word: annual_sale

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 Prompt Lines

• Prompt lines: executable statements that inform the user what to do

• Always include prompt lines when input is needed from users

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 Documentation

• A well-documented program is easier to understand and modify

• You use comments to document programs
• Comments should appear in a program to:
• Explain the purpose of the program
• Identify who wrote it
• Explain the purpose of particular statements

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 Form and Style

• Consider two ways of declaring variables:

• Method 1
int feet, inches;
double x, y;
• Method 2
int feet,inches; double x,y;
• Both are correct; however, the second is harder to read

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 More on Assignment Statements

• Two forms of assignment

• Simple and compound
• Compound operators provide more concise notation
• Compound operators:
• Simple assignment statement example

• Compound assignment statement example

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 Quick Review (1 of 3)

• A C++ program is a collection of functions, one of which is always called main

• Identifiers consist of letters, digits, and underscores, and begin with a letter or
an underscore
• The arithmetic operators in C++ are addition (+), subtraction (-), multiplication
(*), division (/), and modulus (%)
• Arithmetic expressions are evaluated using the precedence associativity rules

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 Quick Review (2 of 3)

• All operands in an integral expression are integers

• All operands in a floating-point expression are decimal numbers
• A mixed expression contains both integers and decimal numbers
• Use the cast operator to explicitly convert values from one data type to another
• A named constant is initialized when declared
• All variables must be declared before used

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 Quick Review (3 of 3)

• Use cin and the stream extraction operator to input from the standard
input device
• Use cout and the stream insertion operator to output to the standard
output device
• Preprocessor commands are processed before the program goes through the
compiler
• A file containing a C++ program usually ends with the extension .cpp

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