Course Title: Applied Chemistry

Course Code: Chem 116

Lecture

Instructor Name
Dr. Muhammad Usman Rashid
Assistant Professor
Institute Of Chemical Engineering And Technology, ICET
University of the Punjab, Lahore
Date: 20-12-2021
 Water Pollution: Background
• Although people intuitively relate filth to disease, the transmission of disease by pathogenic
organisms in polluted water was not recognized until the middle of the nineteenth century. The
Broad Street pump handle incident demonstrated dramatically that water could carry diseases.
In 1854, a public health physician named John Snow, assigned to try to control the spread of
cholera, noticed a curious concentration of cholera cases in one part of London.
• Almost all of the people affected drew their drinking water from a community pump in the middle
of Broad Street. However, people who worked in an adjacent brewery were not affected. Snow
recognized that the brewery workers' apparent immunity to cholera occurred because the brewery
drew its water from a private well and not from the Broad Street pump (although the immunity
might have been thought due to the health benefits of beer).
• Snow's evidence convinced the city council to ban the polluted water supply, which was done by
removing the pump handle so that the pump was effectively unusable. The source of infection was
cut off, the cholera epidemic subsided, and the public began to understand the importance of
having clean drinking water supplies.
•

and animals in their physical environment make up an ecosystem. The

study of ecosystems is ecology. Although we often draw lines around a specific
ecosystem to be able to study it more fully
 Sources of water pollution
• Water pollutants are categorized as point source or nonpoint source.
• Point sources are identified as all dry weather pollutants that enter water courses through pipes or
channels. Point source pollution comes mainly from industrial facilities and municipal wastewater
treatment plants. The range of pollutants is vast, depending only on what gets “thrown down the
drain.”

• Nonpoint source pollution comes from agricultural run off, construction sites, and other land
disturbances. Storm drainage, even though the water may enter water courses by way of pipes or
channels, is considered nonpoint source pollution.

• Sediments and suspended solids may also be classified as a pollutant. Sediments consists of
mostly inorganic material washed into a stream as a result of land cultivation, construction,
demolition, and mining operations. Organic sediments can deplete the water of oxygen, creating
anaerobic (without oxygen) conditions, and may create unsightly conditions and cause unpleasant
odors.
 Salts
• Water naturally accumulates a variety of dissolved solids, or salts, as it passes through soils and
rocks on its way to the sea. These salts typically include such cations as sodium, calcium,
magnesium, and potassium, and anions such as chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate.
• A careful analysis of salinity would result in a list of the concentrations of the primary cations and
anions, but a simpler, more commonly used measure of salinity is the concentration of total
dissolved solids (TDS). As a rough approximation, fresh water can be considered to be water with
less than 1,500 mg/L TDS; brackish waters may have TDS values up to 5,000 mg/L; and saline
waters are those with concentrations above 5,000 mg/L (Tchobanoglous & Shroeder, 1985).
• Seawater contains 30,000 to 34,000 mg/L TDS. The concentration of dissolved solids is an
important indicator of the usefulness of water for various applications. Drinking water, for example,
has a recommended maximum TDS concentration of 500 mg/L. Many people will begin to notice
water tastes salty at about 1,000 mg/L of TDS, although this is very dependent on the particular
dissolved constituents.
 Heavy Metals
• Metals are characterized by high thermal and electrical conductivity, high reflectivity and
metallic luster, strength, and ductility. From a chemical perspective, however, it is more
common to use a broader definition that says a metal is an element that will give up one
or more electrons to form a cation in an aqueous solution. The term heavy metal is less
precisely defined. It is often used to refer to metals with specific gravity greater than
about 4 or 5. In terms of their environmental impacts, the most important heavy metals
are mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As).
• Most metals are toxic, including aluminum, arsenic, beryllium, bismuth, cadmium,
chromium, cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, selenium, strontium,
thallium, tin, titanium, and zinc. Some of these metals, such as chromium and iron, are
essential nutrients in our diets, but in higher doses, they can cause a range of adverse
impacts on the body, including nervous system and kidney damage, creation of mutations,
and induction of tumors.
 Pesticides
• The term pesticide is used to cover a range of chemicals that kill organisms that humans consider undesirable.
Pesticides can be delineated as insecticides, herbicides, rodenticides, and fungicides.
• There are three main groups of synthetic organic insecticides: organochlorines (also known as chlorinated
hydrocarbons), organophosphates, and carbamates.

• The most widely known organochlorine pesticide is DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), which has been
widely used to control insects that carry diseases such as malaria (mosquitoes), typhus (body lice), and plague
(fleas).
• By contributing to the control of these diseases, DDT is credited with saving literally millions of lives worldwide.
In spite of its more recent reputation as a dangerous pesticide, in terms of human toxicity, DDT is considered to
be relatively safe.
 Oxygen Demanding Substances
• Oxygen demanding substances such as might be discharged from milk
processing plants, breweries, or paper mills, as well as municipal wastewater
treatment plants, compose one of the most important types of pollutants
because these materials decompose in the watercourse and can deplete the
water of dissolved oxygen.
• One of the most important measures of the quality of a water source is the
amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) present. The saturated value of dissolved
oxygen in water is modest, on the order of 8 to 15 mg of oxygen per liter of
water, depending on temperature and salinity. The minimum recommended
amount of DO for a healthy fish population has often been set at 5 mg/L,
Oxygen-demanding wastes are substances that oxidize in the receiving body of
water.
• As bacteria decompose these wastes, they utilize oxygen dissolved in the water,
which reduces the remaining amount of DO. As DO drops, fish and other
aquatic life are threatened and, in the extreme case, killed. In addition, as
dissolved oxygen levels fall, undesirable odors, tastes, and colors reduce the
acceptability of that water as a domestic supply and reduce its attractiveness for
recreational uses.
• Oxygen-demanding wastes are usually biodegradable organic substances
contained in municipal wastewaters or in effluents from certain industries, such
as food processing and paper production. In addition, the oxidation of certain
inorganic compounds may contribute to the oxygen demand. Even naturally
occurring organic matter, such as leaves and animal droppings, that finds its
way into surface water contributes to oxygen depletion.
 Dissolved Oxygen
• One of the most important measures of water quality is dissolved oxygen. Oxygen, although
poorly soluble in water, is fundamental to aquatic life. Without free dissolved oxygen, streams and
lakes become uninhabitable to aerobic organisms, including fish and most invertebrates. Dissolved
oxygen is inversely proportional to temperature, and the maximum amount of oxygen that can be
dissolved in water at 0 °C is 14.6 mg/L. The saturation value decreases rapidly with increasing
water temperature, as shown in Table 5-1. The balance between saturation and depletion is
therefore tenuous.
• The amount of oxygen dissolved in water is usually measured either with an oxygen probe or by
iodometric titration. The latter method, known as the Winkler test was developed about 100 years
ago and is the standard against which all other measurements are compared. Manganous sulfate
(MnSO4)and a mixture of potassium hydroxide and potassium iodide (KOH and KI) are added to
a water sample.
 Biochemical Oxygen demand

• Surface water is obviously highly susceptible to contamination. When biodegradable organic

matter is released into a body of water, microorganisms, especially bacteria, feed on the wastes,
breaking them down into simpler organic and inorganic substances. When this decomposition
takes place in an aerobic environment—that is, in the presence of oxygen—the process produces
nonobjectionable, stable end products such as carbon dioxide (CO 2), sulfate (SO4),
orthophosphate (PO4) , and nitrate (NO3) . A simplified representation of aerobic decomposition
is given by the following:
• When insufficient oxygen is available, the resulting anaerobic decomposition is performed by
completely different microorganisms. They produce end products that can be highly
objectionable, including hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3) and methane (CH4) . Anaerobic
decomposition can be represented by the following:

• The methane produced is physically stable, biologically degradable, and a potent greenhouse gas.
When emitted from bodies of water, it is often called swamp gas. It is also generated in the
anaerobic environment of landfills, where it is sometimes collected and used as an energy source.
The amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to oxidize organic wastes aerobically is called
the biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
• BOD may have various units, but most often, it is expressed in milligrams of oxygen required per
liter of wastewater (mg/L).
 Chemical Oxygen Demand
• One problem with the BOD test is that it takes 5 days to run. If the organic compounds were
oxidized chemically instead of biologically, the test could be shortened considerably. Such
oxidation can be accomplished with the chemical oxygen demand (COD) test. Because nearly all
organic compounds are oxidized in the COD test, while only some are decomposed during the
BOD test, COD results are always higher than BOD results. One example of this is wood pulping
waste in which compounds such as cellulose are easily oxidized chemically (high COD) but are
very slow to decompose biologically (low BOD).
• The standard COD test uses a mixture of potassium dichromate and sulfuric acid to
oxidize the organic matter (HCOH), with silver (Ag+) added as a catalyst. A simplified
example of this reaction is illustrated below, using dichromate (Cr2072-) and hydrogen
ions (H+):
•
◦ The hardness of water is due to the presence of soluble bicarbonates, chlorides and
sulfates of calcium and magnesium. Water which does not give lather with soap is hard
water.
◦ Water is the most important compound that is needed for the survival of life on earth.
Water is present in the oceans, rivers, ponds, lakes, glaciers, etc. Rainwater is considered
pure water because it does not contain any salt dissolved in it thought there are dissolved
gases present. Water can be classified as hard water and soft water.
• Soft water: It lathers with soap. Water which is obtained from the rains is soft water. This
water is suitable for household purposes for example laundry and cleaning.
• Hard water: It is known as hard water because of the presence of salts of calcium and
magnesium. Hard water does not lather with soap but instead forms a precipitate.
◦ What is Hard Water?
◦ Hard water has high mineral content. It is formed when water percolates through the deposits of chalk and limestone
which are made up of magnesium and calcium carbonates. It does not lather with soap, so it is not suitable for laundry
purposes.
◦ The hardness of water is harmful to the boilers as the deposition of salts occurs, which reduces the efficiency of the
boiler. Hard water is safe to drink but using over a long interval of time can lead to many problems like:
• Strains in skin
• Water appliances work harder resulting in higher water bills
• Spots appear on clothes and linens
◦ Types of Hardness of Water
◦ The hardness of water can be classified into two types:
• Temporary Hardness 
• Permanent Hardness
◦ Temporary Hardness of Water:
◦ The presence of magnesium and calcium carbonates in water makes it temporarily hard. In this case, the hardness in
water can be removed by boiling the water.
◦ When we boil water the soluble salts of Mg(HCO3)2 is converted to MgCO3 which is insoluble and hence gets
precipitated and is removed. After filtration, the water we get is soft water.
◦ Permanent Hardness of Water:
◦ When the soluble salts of magnesium and calcium are present in the form of chlorides and
sulphides in water, we call it permanent hardness because this hardness cannot be removed
by boiling.
◦ We can remove this hardness by treating the water with washing soda. Insoluble
carbonates are formed when washing soda reacts with the sulphide and chloride salts of
magnesium and calcium and thus, hard water is converted to soft water.
◦ Disadvantages of Hardness
1.Wastage of soap
2.Wastage of fuel
3.Formation of scales on metallic boilers.
◦ Remove Hardness of Water (Temporary)
◦ By Boiling:
◦ Soluble bicarbonates are converted into insoluble carbonates which are removed by filtration.
◦ Reactions: Ca(HCO3)2 → ΔCaCo3↓ + H2O + CO2
◦ ⇒ Mg(HCO3)2 → ΔMgCO3↓ + H2O + CO2
◦ By Clarks Method:
◦ Calcium hydroxide is Clark’s reagent. It removes the hardness of water by converting bicarbonates into
carbonate.
◦ Reaction: Ca(OH)2 + Ca(HCO3)2 → 2CaCO3↓ + 2H2O
◦ How to Remove Permanent Hardness of Water?
◦ Gan’s Permutit Method:
◦ In this method, sodium aluminum ortho silicate known as permutit or zeolite is used to remove the permanent
hardness of water.
◦ Reaction: Na2 Al2 Si2 O8.xH2O + Ca++→ 2Na+ + Ca Al2 Si2 O8.xH2O
◦ Calgon’s Process:
◦ In this method, sodium-hexa-meta-phosphate (NaPO 3)6 known as Calgon is used. The hardness in water is
removed by the adsorption of Ca++ and Mg++ ions.
◦ Ion Exchange Resin Method:
◦ In this method, the permanent hardness of water is removed by using resins. Ca ++/Mg++ ions are exchanged with
Cl–, SO4-2 ions are exchanged with anion exchange resin (RNH 2OH). Demineralized water is formed in this process.
◦ ⇒ 2RCOOH + Ca++ → (RCOO)2Ca + 2H+
◦ ⇒ RNH2OH + Cl– → RNH2Cl + OH–
◦ ⇒ H+ + OH– → H2O
◦ Harmful Effects of Hard Water
◦ Some of the most common signs of hard water include:
• Linens and clothes look dull and feel rough.
• Ugly stains on white porcelain and scale build-up on faucets
• Low water pressure from showers due to clogged pipes.
• Chalky, white residue or spots appear on dishes.
• Strains appearing in the shower.
◦ Disadvantages of Hard Water:
◦ 1. It is very difficult to wash clothes with hard water as it requires more soap and leaves a messy scum that
cannot be washed out easily.
◦ When hard water is boiled at home or in industries, it leaves deposits of calcium and magnesium salts in
kettles, hot-water pipes, boilers and radiators. These deposits reduce the efficiency of boilers, kettles and
pipes and can cause blockages and even bursting of the boilers.
◦ Even though 75% of the Earth is filled with water, only 2.5% of it is fresh water, and most of the freshwater
is in the form of glaciers. This means, of the total water which is available on the earth, only 0.02% can be
used.
◦ In Pakistan, the primary problem is the scarcity of water, and it is followed by the problem of dealing with
hard water. The hard water cannot be consumed without proper treatment as it is very hazardous for health.
◦ Even though hard water has some health benefits, when the hardness level of water crosses the ideal limit, it
can do serious damage to your health, especially to skin and hair. Not only this, but hard water also poses
serious challenges in domestic and industrial applications. Hard water causes staining of glass, tiles and bath
fittings and it can also damage household appliances and equipment.
Building of soap Scum
◦ Do you have to keep removing the white spots from the fixture? Are you wondering what is creating
that? Well, that’s the hard water that has left behind the calcium deposits. Calcium mineral not only
stick to the faucet but also soaps and detergents and make them ineffective. Also, this makes the soap
sticky instead of slippery.
Clogged Pipes

Scale deposits because of hard water can clog the showerheads and pipes. The clogged pipes create hindrance
for the water to flow properly. If you need to make frequent calls to the plumbers, the chances are high that you
are supplied with hard water.
Faded Laundry
Hard water makes the soap incapable. And the detergents are no exception! When you wash your clothes in hard
water, they will not feel completely cleaned. Also, the residue of the detergents will fade the color of the clothes.
It’s time for you to check your towel. Is it as soft as it was when you bought it? Or has it become hard. If your
towel has become stiff, you are washing it in hard water.
Appliances wear out earlier
The scale deposition by hard water can create havoc on the appliances. From your dishwasher to the washing
machine, and geysers, hard water can reduce the life span of all the appliances. For instance, the expected life span
of a washing machine is 11 years. However, if you operate the washing machine in hard water, the life span of the
appliance reduces to 7 years.
◦ Lather Formation: When you wash clothes with hard water, instead of producing lather, the soap forms a white precipitate. The
white precipitate is the scum. And without the formation of the lather, your clothes don’t get cleaned.
◦ Stains: Hard water stains your clothes. Instead of producing lather, the detergent produces scum. This scum then stains your clothes
and also washes away their colors. Further, your clothes turn scratchy due to calcium scum.
◦ Hard water also stains your bath tiles, glass and bath fittings. If not cleaned regularly, the calcium deposits can form a very hard to
remove layer on the bath fittings. The cloud-like watermarks that are left on the utensils are because of hard water only.
◦ Impact on Hair: If you keep washing your hair with hard water, you will keep having bad hair days. When you wash your hair with
hard water, your hair becomes dry and rough. This is because of the excess minerals which are present in the hard water, which
becomes a curd-like substance, and it sticks to your hair. As a result, you might feel like washing your hair, but it will make your
hair frizzier.
◦ Impact on Skin: Taking a bath with hard water, make your skin dry and itchy. It is because the leftover of the soap residue sticks to
your body. The leftover residue creates eczema-like symptoms. Such an issue is more common in children.
◦ Reduces the Life of Appliances: If you keep operating the appliances of your household with hard water, the lifespan of the
appliances will reduce drastically. Hard water wears down the appliances slowly, and eventually, they break down. Also, the build-
up from the minerals of the hard water reduces the efficiency of the machines. The expected lifespan of a dishwasher is ten years.
However, if you use hot water to runs it, the life span will reduce to seven years.
◦ Similarly, a faucet should run for nine years. But with hard water, it will only run for five years. That’s how drastically hard water
wears down the appliances.
◦ Corrosion of Pipes: Hard water deposits can not only corrode the pipe but also clog it. As a result, the water that can pass through
the pipe reduces. And this only slows the flow of water. Pipe corrosion can also result in leaching of metals in the water which is not
safe for consumption.
Is Hard Water Safe to Drink?
◦ From the point of hard water’s impact on your health, if the mineral content in the hard water is within the
permissible limit, then the hard water is absolutely safe to drink. It can fulfill your requirement of calcium
and magnesium. As per the BIS guidelines, if the TDS level of the water at your home is lower than 500 mg/l
then it is safe to drink. But the ideal TDS level of drinking water should be below 300 mg/l, preferably in the
range of 80-150 mg/l.
◦ If the mineral content exceeds the permissible limit then excessive hardness in the drinking water can be a
cause for concern.