Transformers:

Basics, Maintenance, and

Diagnostics

CORPORATE ENGINEERING
ROBINSONS LAND CORPORATION
A transformer has no internal moving parts, and it transfers energy from one
circuit to another by electromagnetic induction. External cooling may include
heat exchangers, radiators, fans, and oil pumps. Radiators and fans are evident in
figure 1. the large horizontal tank at the top is a conservator. Transformers are
typically used because a change in voltage is needed. Power transformers are
defined as transformers rated 500 kVA and larger. Larger transformers are oil-
filled for insulation and cooling; a typical GSU transformer may contain several
thousand gallons of oil. One must always be aware of the possibility of spills,
leaks, fires, and
environmental risks this oil poses.
Transformers smaller than 500 kVA are generally
called distribution transformers. Pole-top and small,
pad-mounted transformers that serve residences and
small businesses are typically distribution transformers.
Generator step-up transformers, used in Reclamation
power plants, receive electrical energy at generator
voltage and increase it to a higher voltage for
Figure 1 – Typical GSU Three-
transmission lines. Conversely, a step down
Phase transformer receives energy at a higher voltage and
Transformer.
delivers it at a lower voltage for distribution to various
loads.
All electrical devices using coils (in this case, transformers) are constant wattage
devices. This means voltage multiplied by current must remain constant;
therefore, when voltage is “stepped-up,” the current is “stepped-down” (and vice
versa). Transformers transfer electrical energy between circuits completely
insulated from each other. This makes it possible to use very high (stepped-up)
voltages for transmission lines, resulting in a lower (stepped-down) current.
Higher voltage and lower current reduce the required size and cost of
transmission lines and reduce transmission losses as well. Transformers have
made possible economic delivery of electric power over long distances.

Transformers do not require as much attention as most other equipment;

however, the care and maintenance they do require is absolutely critical.
Because of their reliability, maintenance is sometimes ignored, causing
reduced service life and, at times, outright failure.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Transformer function is based on the principle that electrical energy is
transferred efficiently by magnetic induction from one circuit to another. When
one winding of a transformer is energized from an alternating current (AC)
source, an alternating magnetic field is established in the transformer core.
Alternating magnetic lines of force, called “flux,” circulate through the core.
With a second winding around the same core, a voltage is induced by the
alternating flux lines. A circuit, connected to the terminals of the second
winding, results in current flow.
Each phase of a transformer is composed of two separate coil windings wound
on a common core. The low-voltage winding is placed nearest the core; the
high-voltage winding is then placed around both the low-voltage winding and
core. See figure 2 which shows internal construction of one phase. The core is
typically made from very thin steel laminations, each coated with insulation.
By insulating between individual laminations, losses are reduced. The steel core
provides a low resistance path for magnetic flux. Both high- and low-voltage
windings are insulated from the core and from each other, and leads are brought
out through insulating bushings. A three-phase transformer typically has a core
with three legs and has both high-voltage and low-voltage windings around
each leg. Special paper and wood are used for insulation and internal structural
support.

Figure 2 – Transformer Construction.

TRANSFORMER ACTION
Transformer action depends upon magnetic lines of force (flux) mentioned
above. At the instant a transformer primary is energized with AC, a flow of
electrons (current) begins. During the instant of switch closing, buildup of
current and magnetic field occurs. As current begins the positive portion of the
sine wave, lines of magnetic force (flux) develop outward from the coil and
continue to expand until the current is at its positive peak. The magnetic field is
also at its positive peak. The current sine wave then begins to decrease, crosses
zero, and goes negative until it reaches its negative peak. The magnetic flux
switches direction and also reaches its peak in the opposite direction. With an
AC power circuit, the current changes (alternates) continually 60 times per
second, which is standard in the United States. Other countries may use other
frequencies. In Europe, 50 cycles per second is common.

Strength of a magnetic field depends on the amount of current and number of

turns in the winding. When current is reduced, the magnetic field shrinks.
When the current is switched off, the magnetic field collapses.
When a coil is placed in an AC circuit, as shown in figure 3, current in the
primary coil will be accompanied by a constantly rising and collapsing magnetic
field. When another coil is placed within the alternating magnetic field of the
first coil, the rising and collapsing flux will induce voltage in the second coil.

Figure 3 – Transformer Action.

When an external circuit is connected to the second coil, the induced voltage in
the coil will cause a current in the second coil. The coils are said to be
magnetically coupled; they are, however, electrically isolated from each other.
Many transformers have separate coils, as shown in figure 3, and contain many
turns of wire and a magnetic core, which forms a path for and concentrates the
magnetic flux. The winding receiving electrical energy from the source is called
the primary winding. The winding which receives energy from the primary
winding, via the magnetic field, is called the “secondary” winding.
Either the high- or low-voltage winding can be the primary or the secondary.
With GSUs at Reclamation power plants, the primary winding is the low-
voltage side (generator voltage), and the high-voltage side is the secondary
winding (transmission voltage). Where power is used (i.e., at residences or
businesses), the primary winding is the high-voltage side, and the secondary
winding is the low-voltage side.
The amount of voltage induced in each turn of the secondary winding will be
the same as the voltage across each turn of the primary winding. The total
amount of voltage induced will be equal to the sum of the voltages induced in
each turn. Therefore, if the secondary winding has more turns than the primary,
a greater voltage will be induced in the secondary; and the transformer is known
as a step-up transformer. If the secondary winding has fewer turns than the
primary, a lower voltage will be induced in the secondary; and the transformer
is a step-down transformer. Note that the primary is always connected to the
source of power, and the secondary is always connected to the load.
In actual practice, the amount of power available from the secondary will be
slightly less than the amount supplied to the primary because of losses in the
transformer itself.
When an AC generator is connected to the primary coil of a transformer (figure
4), electrons flow through the coil due to the generator voltage. Alternating
current varies, and accompanying magnetic flux varies, cutting both transformer
coils and inducing voltage in each coil circuit.

Figure 4 – Transformer.

The voltage induced in the primary circuit opposes the applied voltage and is
known as back voltage or back electro-motive-force (back EMF). When the
secondary circuit is open, back EMF, along with the primary circuit resistance,
acts to limit the primary current. Primary current must be sufficient to maintain
enough magnetic field to produce the required back EMF.
When the secondary circuit is closed and a load is applied, current appears in the
secondary due to induced voltage, resulting from flux created by the primary
current. This secondary current sets up a second magnetic field in the transformer
in the opposite direction of the primary field. Thus, the two fields oppose each
other and result in a combined magnetic field of less strength than the single field
produced by the primary with the secondary open. This reduces the back voltage
(back EMF) of the primary and causes the primary current to increase. The
primary current increases until it reestablishes the total magnetic field at its
original strength.
In transformers, a balanced condition must always exist between the primary and
secondary magnetic fields. Volts times amperes (amps) must also be balanced (be
the same) on both primary and secondary. The required primary voltage and
current must be supplied to maintain the transformer losses and secondary load.
TRANSFORMER VOLTAGE AND CURRENT
If the small amount of transformer loss is ignored, the back-voltage (back EMF)
of the primary must equal the applied voltage. The magnetic field, which
induces the back-voltage in the primary, also cuts the secondary coil. If the
secondary coil has the same number of turns as the primary, the voltage induced
in the secondary will equal the back-voltage induced in the primary (or the
applied voltage). If the secondary coil has twice as many turns as the primary, it
will be cut twice as many times by the flux, and twice the applied primary
voltage will be induced in the secondary. The total induced voltage in each
winding is proportional to the number of turns in that winding. If E1 is the
primary voltage and I1 the primary current, E2 the secondary voltage and I2 the
secondary current, N1 the primary turns and N2 the secondary turns, then:

Note that the current is inversely proportional to both voltage and number of
turns. This means (as discussed earlier) that if voltage is stepped up, the current
must be stepped down and vice versa. The number of turns remains constant
unless there is a tap changer (discussed later).
The power output or input of a transformer equals volts times amperes (E x I).
If the small amount of transformer loss is disregarded, input equals output or:

If the primary voltage of a transformer is 110 volts (V), the primary winding
has 100 turns, and the secondary winding has 400 turns, what will the
secondary voltage be?

If the primary current is 20 amps, what will the secondary current be?
Since there is a ratio of 1 to 4 between the turns in the primary and secondary
circuits, there must be a ratio of 1 to 4 between the primary and secondary
voltage and a ratio of 4 to 1 between the primary and secondary current. As
voltage is stepped up, the current is stepped down, keeping volts multiplied by
amps constant. This is referred to as “volt amps.”

As mentioned earlier and further illustrated in figure 5, when the number of

turns or voltage on the secondary of a transformer is greater than that of the
primary, it is known as a step-up transformer. When the number of turns or
voltage on the secondary is less than that of the primary, it is known as a step-
down transformer. A power transformer used to tie two systems together may
feed current either way between systems, or act as a step-up or step-down
transformer, depending on where power is being generated and where it is
consumed. As mentioned above, either winding could be the primary or
secondary. To eliminate this confusion, in power generation, windings of
transformers are often referred to as high-side and low-side windings,
depending on the relative values of the voltages.
 Figure 5 – Step-Up and Step-Down
Transformers.

Note that kVA (amps times volts) remains constant throughout the above circuit
on both sides of each transformer, which is why they are called constant wattage
devices.

Efficiencies of well-designed power transformers are very high, averaging over

98 percent (%). The only losses are due to core losses, maintaining the alternating
magnetic field, resistance losses in the coils, and power used for cooling. The
main reason for high efficiencies of power transformers, compared to other
equipment, is
the absence of moving parts. Transformers are called static AC machines.
THE MAGNETIC CIRCUIT
A magnetic circuit or core of a transformer is designed to provide a path for the
magnetic field, which is necessary for induction of voltages between windings.
A path of low reluctance (i.e., resistance to magnetic lines of force), consisting
of thin silicon, sheet steel laminations, is used for this purpose. In addition to
providing a low reluctance path for the magnetic field, the core is designed to
prevent circulating electric currents within the steel itself. Circulating currents,
called eddy currents, cause heating and energy loss. They are due to voltages
induced in the steel of the core, which is constantly subject to alternating
magnetic fields. Steel itself is a conductor, and changing lines of magnetic flux
also induce a voltage and current in this conductor. By using very thin sheets of
steel with insulating material between sheets, eddy currents (losses) are greatly
reduced.

The two common arrangements of the magnetic path and the windings are
shown in figure 6 and 7. In the core-type (core form) transformer, the windings
surround the core.
A section of both primary and secondary windings are wound on each leg of the
core, the low voltage winding is wound next to the core, and the high voltage
winding is wound over the low voltage.

Figure 6 – Magnetic Circuits.

Figure 7 – Three-Phase Core Form and Three-Phase Shell

Form Transformer Units.
In a shell-type (shell form) transformer, the steel magnetic circuit (core) forms a
shell surrounding the windings. In a core form, the windings are on the outside;
in a shell form, the windings are on the inside. In power transformers, the
electrical windings are arranged so that practically all of the magnetic lines of
force go through both the primary and secondary windings. A small percentage
of the magnetic lines of force goes outside the core, and this is called leakage
flux. Larger transformers, such as Reclamation GSU transformers, are almost
always shell type.
Note that, in the shell form transformers, (see figure 7) the magnetic flux,
external to the coils on both left and right extremes, has complete magnetic paths
for stray and zero sequence flux to return to the coils. In the core form, it can
easily be seen from the figure that, on both left and right extremes, there are no
return paths. This means that the flux must use external tank walls and the
insulating medium for return paths. This increases core losses and decreases
overall efficiency and shows why most large transformers are built as shell form
units.
CORE LOSSES
Since magnetic lines of force in a transformer are constantly changing in value
and direction, heat is developed because of the hysteresis of the magnetic
material (friction of the molecules). This heat must be removed; therefore, it
represents an energy loss of the transformer. High temperatures in a transformer
will drastically shorten the life of insulating materials used in the windings and
structures. For every 8 degrees Celsius (°C) temperature rise, life of the
transformer is cut by one-half; therefore, maintenance of cooling systems is
critical.
Losses of energy, which appears as heat due both to hysteresis and to eddy
currents in the magnetic path, is known as core losses. Since these losses are due
to alternating magnetic fields, they occur in a transformer whenever the primary
is energized, even though no load is on the secondary winding.
COPPER LOSSES

There is some loss of energy in a transformer due to resistance of the primary

winding to the magnetizing current, even when no load is connected to the
transformer. This loss appears as heat generated in the winding and must also
be removed by the cooling system. When a load is connected to a transformer
and electrical currents exist in both primary and secondary windings, further
losses of electrical energy occur. These losses, due to resistance of the
windings, are called
copper losses (or the I2R losses).
TRANSFORMER RATING
Capacity (or rating) of a transformer is limited by the temperature that the
insulation can tolerate. Ratings can be increased by reducing core and copper
losses, by increasing the rate of heat dissipation (better cooling), or by
improving transformer insulation so it will withstand higher temperatures. A
physically larger transformer can dissipate more heat, due to the increased area
and increased volume of oil. A transformer is only as strong as its weakest link,
and the weakest link is the paper insulation, which begins to degrade around
100 °C. This means that a transformer must be operated with the “hottest spot”
cooler than this degradation temperature, or service life is greatly reduced.
Reclamation typically orders transformers larger than required, which aids in
heat removal and increases transformer life.

Ratings of transformers are obtained by simply multiplying the current times

the voltage. Small transformers are rated in “VA,” volts times amperes. As size
increases, 1 kilovoltampere (kVA) means 1,000 voltamperes, 1
megavoltampere (MVA) means 1 million voltamperes.
PERCENT IMPEDANCE
The impedance of a transformer is the total opposition offered an alternating
current. This may be calculated for each winding. However, a rather simple test
provides a practical method of measuring the equivalent impedance of a
transformer without separating the impedance of the windings. When referring
to impedance of a transformer, it is the equivalent impedance that is meant. In
order to determine equivalent impedance, one winding of the transformer is
short circuited, and just enough voltage is applied to the other winding to create
full load current to flow in the short circuited winding. This voltage is known as
the impedance voltage. Either winding may be short-circuited for this test, but it
is usually more convenient to short circuit the low-voltage winding. The
transformer impedance value is given on the nameplate in percent. This means
that the voltage drop due to the impedance is expressed as a percent of rated
voltage. For example, if a 2,400/240-volt transformer has a measured
impedance voltage of 72 volts on the high-voltage windings, its impedance (Z),
expressed as a percent, is:
This means there would be a 72-volt drop in the high-voltage winding at full
load due to losses in the windings and core. Only 1 or 2% of the losses are due
to the core; about 98% are due to the winding impedance. If the transformer
were not operating at full load, the voltage drop would be less. If an actual
impedance value in ohms is needed for the high-voltage side:

where V is the voltage drop or, in this case, 72 volts; and I is the full load
current in the primary winding. If the full load current is 10 amps:

Of course, one must remember that impedance is made up of both resistive and
reactive components.
INTERNAL FORCES
During normal operation, internal structures and windings are subjected to
mechanical forces due to the magnetic forces. By designing the internal structure
very strong to withstand these forces over a long period of time, service life can
be extended. However, in a large transformer during a “through fault” (fault
current passing through a transformer), forces can reach millions of pounds,
pulling the coils up and down and pulling them apart 60 times per second. The
internal low-voltage coil is being pulled downward, while the high-voltage
winding is pulled up, in the opposite direction. At the same time, the high- and
low-voltage coils are being forced apart. Keep in mind that these forces are
reversing 60 times each second. It is obvious why internal structures of
transformers must be built incredibly strong.

Many times, if fault currents are high, these forces can rip a transformer apart
and cause electrical faults inside the transformer itself. This normally results in
arcing inside the transformer that can result in explosive failure of the tank,
throwing flaming oil over a wide area. There are protective relaying systems to
protect against this possibility, although explosive failures do occur
occasionally.
AUTOTRANSFORMERS
It is possible to obtain transformer action by means of a single coil, provided
that there is a “tap connection” somewhere along the winding. Transformers
having only one winding are called autotransformers, shown schematically
in figure 9.
An autotransformer has the usual magnetic core but only one winding, which
is common to both the primary and secondary circuits.
The primary is always the portion of the winding connected to the AC power
source. This transformer may be used to step voltage up or down. If the
primary is the total winding and is connected to a supply, and the secondary
circuit is connected across only a portion of the winding (as shown), the
secondary voltage is “stepped-down.”
If only a portion of the winding is the
primary and is connected to the supply
voltage and the secondary includes all the
winding, then the voltage will be
“stepped-up” in proportion to the ratio of
the total turns to the number of connected
Figure 9 – Autotransformers.
turns in the primary winding.
When primary current I1 is in the direction of the arrow, secondary current, I2,
is in the opposite direction, as in figure 9b. Therefore, in the portion of the
winding between points b and c, current is the difference of I1 and I2. If the
requirement is to step the voltage up (or down) only a small amount, then the
transformer ratio is small—E1 and E2 are nearly equal. Currents I1 and I2 are
also nearly equal. The portion of the winding between b and c, which carries the
difference of the currents, can be made of a much smaller conductor, since the
current is much lower.
Under these circumstances, the autotransformer is much cheaper than the two-
coil transformer of the same rating. However, the disadvantage of the
autotransformer is that the primary and secondary circuits are electrically
connected and, therefore, could not safely be used for stepping down from high
voltage to a voltage suitable for plant loads. The autotransformer, however, is
extensively used for reducing line voltage for step increases in starting larger
induction motors. There are generally four or five taps that are changed by
timers so that more of the winding is added in each step until the full voltage is
applied across the motor. This avoids the large inrush current required when
starting motors at full line voltage. This transformer is also extensively used for
“buck-boost” when the voltage needs to be stepped up or down only a small
percentage. One very common example is boosting 208 V up from one phase of
a 120/208-V three-phase system, to 220 V for single-phase loads.
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Instrument transformers (figure 10) are used for measuring and control purposes.
They provide currents and voltages proportional to the primary, but there is less
danger to instruments and personnel.

Those transformers used to step voltage down are known as potential

transformers (PTs) and those used to step current down are known as current
transformers (CTs).
The function of a PT is to accurately measure voltage on the primary, while a
CT is used to measure current on the primary.
POTENTIAL TRANSFORMERS
Potential transformers (figure 11) are used with voltmeters, wattmeters, watt-
hour meters, power-factor meters, frequency meters, synchroscopes and
synchronizing apparatus, protective and regulating relays, and undervoltage and
overvoltage trip coils of circuit breakers. One potential transformer can be used
for a number of instruments if the total current required by the instruments
connected to the secondary winding does not exceed the transformer rating.
Potential transformers are usually rated 50 to 200 volt-amperes at 120 secondary
volts. The secondary terminals should never be short circuited because a heavy
current will result, which can damage the windings.
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
The primary of a current transformer typically has only one turn. This is not
really a turn or wrap around the core but just a conductor or bus going through
the “window.” The primary never has more than a very few turns, while the
secondary may have a great many turns, depending upon how much the current
must be stepped down. In most cases, the primary of a current transformer is a
single wire or bus bar, and the secondary is wound on a laminated magnetic
core, placed around the conductor in which the current needs to be measured,
as illustrated in figure 12.
If primary current exists and the secondary
circuit of a CT is closed, the winding builds and
maintains a counter or back EMF to the primary
magnetizing force. Should the secondary be
opened with current in the primary, the counter
EMF is removed; and the primary magnetizing
force builds up an extremely high voltage in the
Figure 12 – Current Transformer. secondary, which is dangerous to personnel and
can destroy the current transformer.
Current transformers are used with ammeters, wattmeters, powerfactor meters,
watt-hour meters, compensators, protective and regulating relays, and trip coils
of circuit breakers. One CT can be used to operate several instruments, provided
the combined loads of the instruments do not exceed that for which the CT is
rated. Secondary windings are usually rated at 5 amperes. A variety of current
transformers are shown in figure 13. Many times, CTs have several taps on the
secondary winding to adjust the range of current possible to measure on the
primary.
TRANSFORMER TAPS
Most power transformers have taps on either primary or secondary windings to vary
the number of turns and, thus, the output voltage. The percentage of voltage change,
above or below normal, between different tap positions varies in different
transformers. In oil-cooled transformers, tap leads are brought to a tap changer,
located beneath the oil inside the tank, or brought to an oil-filled tap changer,
externally located. Taps on dry-type transformers are brought to insulated terminal
boards located inside the metal housing, accessible by removing a panel.
Some transformers taps can be changed under load, while other transformers must be
de-energized. When it is necessary to change taps frequently to meet changing
conditions, taps that can be changed under load are used. This is accomplished by
means of a motor that may be controlled either manually or automatically. Automatic
operation is achieved by changing taps to maintain constant voltage as system
conditions change. A common range of adjustment is plus or minus 10%. At
Reclamation power plants, de-energized tap changers (DETC) are used and can only
be changed with the transformer offline. A very few load tap changers (LTC) are
used at Grand Coulee between the 500-kilovolt (kV) (volts x 1,000) and 220-kV
switchyards.
A bypass device is sometimes used across tap changers to ensure power flow in case
of contact failure. This prevents failure of the transformer in case excessive voltage
appears across faulty contacts.
TRANSFORMER BUSHINGS
The two most common types of bushings used on transformers as main lead
entrances are solid porcelain bushings on smaller transformers and oil-filled
condenser bushings on larger transformers.
Solid porcelain bushings consist of high-grade porcelain cylinders that conductors
pass through. Outside surfaces have a series of skirts to increase the leakage path
distance to the grounded metal case. High-voltage bushings are generally oil-filled
condenser type. Condenser types have a central conductor wound with alternating
layers of paper insulation and tin foil and filled with insulating oil. This results in
a path from the conductor to the grounded tank, consisting of a series of
condensers. The layers are designed to provide approximately equal voltage drops
between each condenser layer.
Acceptance and routine maintenance tests most often used for checking the
condition of bushings are Doble power factor tests. The power factor of a bushing
in good condition will remain relatively stable throughout the service life. A good
indication of insulation deterioration is a slowly rising power factor. The most
common cause of failure is moisture entrance through the top bushing seal. This
condition will be revealed before failure by routine Doble testing. If Doble testing
is not performed regularly, explosive failure is the eventual result of a leaking
bushing. This, many times, results in a catastrophic and expensive failure of the
transformer as well.
Transformer Polarity
With power or distribution transformers, polarity is important only if the need
arises to parallel transformers to gain additional capacity or to hook up three
single-phase transformers to make a three-phase bank. The way the connections
are made affects angular displacement, phase rotation, and direction of rotation of
connected motors. Polarity is also important when hooking up current transformers
for relay protection and metering. Transformer polarity depends on which
direction coils are wound around the core (clockwise or counterclockwise) and
how the leads are brought out. Transformers are sometimes marked at their
terminals with polarity marks. Often, polarity marks are shown as white paint dots
(for plus) or plus-minus marks on the transformer and symbols on the nameplate.
These marks show the connections where the input and output voltages (and
currents) have the same instantaneous polarity.
More often, transformer polarity is shown simply by the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI) designations of the winding leads as H1, H2 and X1,
X2. By ANSI standards, if you face the low-voltage side of a single-phase
transformer (the side marked X1, X2), the H1 connection will always be on your
far left. See the single-phase diagrams in figure 14. If the terminal marked X1 is
also on your left, it is subtractive polarity. If the X1 terminal is on your right, it is
additive polarity. Additive polarity is common for small distribution transformers.
Large transformers, such as GSUs at Reclamation power plants, are generally
It is also helpful to think of polarity marks in terms of current direction. At any
instant when the current direction is into a polarity marked terminal of the primary
winding, the current direction is out of the terminal with the same polarity mark in
the secondary winding. It is the same as if there were a continuous circuit across the
two windings.
Polarity is a convenient way of stating how leads are brought out. If you want to test
for polarity, connect the transformer as shown in figure 14. A transformer is said to
have additive polarity if, when adjacent high- and low-voltage terminals are
connected and a voltmeter placed across the other high- and low-voltage terminals,
the voltmeter reads the sum (additive) of the high- and low-voltage windings. It is
subtractive polarity if the voltmeter reads the difference (subtractive) between the
voltages of the two windings. If this test is conducted, use the lowest AC voltage
available to reduce potential hazards. An adjustable ac voltage source, such as a
variac, is recommended to keep the test voltage low.
Single-Phase Transformer Connections for Typical
Service to Buildings
Figure 15 shows a typical arrangement of bringing leads out of a single-phase
distribution transformer. To provide flexibility for connection, the secondary
winding is arranged in two sections.

Figure 15 – Single-
Phase Transformer.

Each section has the same number of turns and, consequently, the same voltage.
Two primary leads (H1, H2) are brought out from the top through porcelain
bushings. Three secondary leads (X1, X2, X3) are brought out through insulating
bushings on the side of the tank, one lead from the center tap (neutral) (X2) and
one from each end of the secondary coil (X1 and X3). Connections, as shown, are
typical of services to homes and small businesses. This connection provides a
three-wire service that permits adequate capacity at minimum cost. The neutral
wire (X2) (center tap) is grounded. A 120-volt circuit is between the neutral and
each of the other leads, and a 240-volt circuit is between the two ungrounded
Parallel Operation of Single-Phase Transformers for
Additional Capacity
In perfect parallel operation of two or more transformers, current in each
transformer would be directly proportional to the transformer capacity, and the
arithmetic sum would equal one-half the total current. In practice, this is seldom
achieved because of small variations in transformers. However, there are
conditions for operating transformers in parallel. They are:
1. Any combination of positive and negative polarity transformers can be used.
However, in all cases, numerical notations must be followed on both
primary and secondary connections. That is H1 connected to H1, H2
connected to H2, and X1 connected to X1, X2 connected to X2, X3
connected to X3. Note that each subscript number on a transformer must be
connected to the same subscript number on the other transformer as shown in
figure 16.
2. Tap settings must be identical.
3. Voltage ratings must be identical; this, of course, makes the turns ratios also
identical.
4. The percent impedance of one transformer must be between 92½% and
107½% of the other. Otherwise, circulating currents between the two
transformers would be excessive.
5. Frequencies must be identical. Standard frequency in the United States is 60
hertz and usually will not present a problem.

One will notice, from the above requirements, that paralleled transformers do
not have to be the same size. However, to meet the percent impedance
requirement, they must be nearly the same size. Most utilities will not
parallel transformers if they are more than one standard kVA size rating
different from each other; otherwise, circulating currents are excessive.
Three-Phase Transformer Connections
Three-phase power is attainable with one three-phase transformer, which is
constructed with three single-phase units enclosed in the same tank or three
separate single-phase transformers. The methods of connecting windings are
the same, whether using the one three-phase transformer or three separate
single phase transformers.

Wye and Delta Connections

The two common methods of connecting three-phase generators, motors, and
transformers are shown in figure 17. The method shown in at figure 17a is
known as a delta connection, because the diagram bears a close resemblance to
the Greek letter ), called delta.

The other method, figure 17b, is known as the star or wye connection. The wye
differs from the delta connection in that it has two phases in series. The common
point “O” of the three windings is called the neutral because equal voltages exist
between this point and any of the three phases.
When windings are connected wye, the voltage between any two lines will be
1.732 times the phase voltage, and the line current will be the same as the
phase current. When transformers are connected delta, the line current will be
1.732 times the phase current, and the voltage between any two will be the
same as that of the phase voltage.
Three-Phase Connections Using Single-Phase
Transformers
As mentioned above, single-phase transformers may be connected to obtain three
phase power. These are found at many Reclamation facilities, at shops, offices,
and warehouses. The same requirements must be observed as in section 2.18,
“Parallel Operation of Single-phase Transformers for Additional Capacity,” with
one additional requirement—in the manner connections are made between
individual single-phase units. ANSI standard connections are illustrated below in
the following figures. There are other angular displacements that will work but
are seldom used. Do not attempt to connect single-phase units together in any
combination that does keep the exact angular displacement on both primary and
secondary; a dangerous short circuit could be the result. Additive and subtractive
polarities can be mixed (see the following figures). These banks also may be
paralleled for additional capacity if the rules are followed for three-phase
paralleling discussed below. When paralleling individual three-phase units or
single phase banks to operate three phase, angular displacements must be the
same.
Figure 18 shows delta-delta connections. Figure 19 shows wye-wye connections,
which are seldom used at Reclamation facilities, due to inherent third harmonic
problems. Methods of dealing with the third harmonic problem by grounding are
listed below.
 Figure 19 – Wye-Wye Connections, Using Single-
Phase Transformers for Three-Phase Operation.
Figure 18 – Delta-Delta Connections, Single-Phase
Transformers for Three-Phase Operation.
Paralleling Three-Phase Transformers
Two or more three-phase transformers, or two or more banks made up of three
single-phase units, can be connected in parallel for additional capacity. In
addition to requirements listed above for single-phase transformers, phase
angular displacements (phase rotation) between high and low voltages must be
the same for both. The requirement for identical angular displacement must be
met for paralleling any combination of three-phase units and/or any combination
of banks made up of three single-phase units.

For delta-delta and wye-wye connections, corresponding voltages on the high

voltage and low-voltage sides are in phase. This is known as zero phase
(angular) displacement. Since the displacement is the same, these may be
paralleled. For delta-wye and wye-delta connections, each low-voltage phase
lags its corresponding highvoltage phase by 30 degrees. Since the lag is the same
with both transformers, these may be paralleled. A delta-delta, wyewye
transformer, or bank (both with zero degrees displacement) cannot be paralleled
with a delta-wye or a wye-delta that has 30 degrees of displacement. This will
result in a dangerous short circuit. Table 1 shows the combinations that will
operate in parallel, and table 2 shows the combinations that will not operate in
parallel.
Figure 20 – Delta-Wye and Wye-Delta Connections Using
Single-Phase Transformers for Three-Phase Operation.
Wye-wye connected transformers are seldom, if ever, used to supply plant loads
or as GSU units, due to the inherent third harmonic problems with this
connection. Delta-delta, delta-wye, and wye-delta are used extensively at
Reclamation facilities. Some rural electric associations use wye-wye connections
that may be supplying Reclamation structures in remote areas. There are three
methods to negate the third harmonic problems found with wye-wye
connections:
1.Primary and secondary neutrals can be connected together and grounded by
one common grounding conductor.
2.Primary and secondary neutrals can be grounded individually using two
grounding conductors.
3.The neutral of the primary can be connected back to the neutral of the sending
transformer by using the transmission line neutral.
In making parallel connections of transformers, polarity markings must be
followed. Regardless of whether transformers are additive or subtractive,
connections of the terminals must be made according to the markings and
according to the method of the connection (i.e., delta or wye).
Methods of Cooling
Increasing the cooling rate of a transformer increases its capacity. Cooling
methods must not only maintain a sufficiently low average temperature but must
prevent an excessive temperature rise in any portion of the transformer (i.e., it
must prevent hot spots). For this reason, working parts of large transformers are
usually submerged in high-grade insulating oil. This oil must be kept as free as
possible from moisture and oxygen, dissolved combustible gases, and particulates.

Ducts are arranged to provide free

circulation of oil through the core and
coils; warmer and lighter oil rises to the top
of the tank, cooler and heavier oil settles to
the bottom. Several methods have been
developed for removing heat that is
transmitted to the transformer oil from the
core and windings (figure 21).
Oil-Filled – Self-Cooled Transformers
In small- and medium-sized transformers, cooling takes place by direct radiation
from the tank to surrounding air. In oil-filled, self-cooled types, tank surfaces
may be corrugated to provide a greater radiating surface. Oil in contact with the
core and windings rises as it absorbs heat and flows outward and downward
along tank walls, where it is cooled by radiating heat to the surrounding air.
These transformers may also have external radiators attached to the tank to
provide greater surface area for cooling.

Forced-Air and Forced-Oil-Cooled Transformers

Forced-air-cooled transformers have fan-cooled radiators through which the
transformer oil circulates by gravity, as shown in figure 22a. Fans force air
through radiators, cooling the oil.
Forced-air/oil/water-cooled transformers have a self-cooled (kVA or MVA) rating
and one or more forced cooling ratings (higher kVA or MVA). Higher ratings are
due to forced cooling in increasing amounts. As temperature increases, more fans
or more oil pumps are turned on automatically.
The forced-cooling principle is based on a tradeoff between extra cooling and
manufacturing costs. Transformers with forced-cooling have less weight and
bulk than self-cooled transformers with the same ratings. In larger-sized
transformers, it is more economical to add forced cooling, even though the
electricity needed to operate fans and pumps increases the operating cost.
Transformer Oil
In addition to dissipating heat due to losses in a transformer, insulating oil
provides a medium with high dielectric strength in which the coils and core are
submerged. This allows the transformers to be more compact, which reduces
costs.
Insulating oil in good condition will withstand far more voltage across
connections inside the transformer tank than will air. An arc would jump across
the same spacing of internal energized components at a much lower voltage if the
tank had only air. In addition, oil conducts heat away from energized components
much better than air.
Over time, oil degrades from normal operations, due to heat and contaminants. Oil
cannot retain high dielectric strength when exposed to air or moisture. Dielectric
strength declines with absorption of moisture and oxygen. These contaminants
also deteriorate the paper insulation. For this reason, efforts are made to prevent
insulating oil from contacting air, especially on larger power transformers. Using
a tightly sealed transformer tank is impractical, due to pressure variations
resulting from thermal expansion and contraction of insulating oil. Common
systems of sealing oil-filled transformers are the conservator with a flexible
diaphragm or bladder or a positive pressure inert-gas (nitrogen) system.
Reclamation GSU transformer are generally purchased with conservators, while
Conservator System
A conservator is connected by piping to the main transformer tank that is
completely filled with oil. The conservator also is filled with oil and contains an
expandable bladder or diaphragm between the oil and air to prevent air from
contacting the oil. Figure 23 is a schematic representation of a conservator
system (figure 1 is an actual photo of a conservator). Air enters and exits the
space above the bladder/ diaphragm as the oil level in the main tank goes up and
down with temperature. Air typically enters and exits
through a desiccant-type air dryer that
must have the desiccant replaced
periodically. The main parts of the system
are the expansion tank, bladder or
diaphragm, breather, vent valves, liquid-
level gauge and alarm switch. Vent valves
are used to vent air from the system when
filling the unit with oil. A liquid-level
gauge indicates the need for adding or
removing transformer oil to maintain the
proper oil level and permit flexing of the
diaphragm. These are described in detail
in section 4.4.
Oil-Filled, Inert-Gas System
A positive seal of the transformer oil may be provided by an inert-gas system.
Here, the tank is slightly pressurized by an inert gas such as nitrogen.
The main tank gas space above the oil is provided with a pressure gauge (figure
24). Since the entire system is designed to exclude air, it must operate with a
positive pressure in the gas space above the oil; otherwise, air will be admitted in
the event of a leak. Smaller station service units do not have nitrogen tanks
attached to automatically add gas, and it is common practice to add nitrogen
yearly each fall as the tank starts to draw partial vacuum, due to cooler weather.
The excess gas is expelled each summer as loads and temperatures increase.

Some systems are designed to add nitrogen automatically (figure 24) from
pressurized tanks when the pressure drops below a set level. A positive pressure
of approximately 0.5 to 5 pounds per square inch (psi) is maintained in the gas
space above the oil to prevent ingress of air. This system includes a nitrogen gas
cylinder; three-stage, pressure-reducing valve; high-and low-pressure gauges;
high and low pressure alarm switch; an oil/condensate sump drain valve; an
automatic pressure relief valve; and necessary piping.
 The function of the three-stage, automatic
pressure-reducing valves is to reduce the
pressure of the nitrogen cylinder to supply the
space above the oil at a maintained pressure of
0.5 to 5 psi.
The high-pressure gauge normally has a range
of 0 to 4,000 psi and indicates nitrogen cylinder
pressure. The low-pressure gauge normally has
a range of about -5 to +10 psi and indicates
nitrogen pressure above the transformer oil.
In some systems, the gauge is equipped with
high- and low-pressure alarm switches to alarm
when gas pressure reaches an abnormal value;
the high-pressure gauge may be equipped with
a
pressure switch to sound an alarm when the supply cylinder pressure is running low.
A sump and drain valve provide a means for collecting and removing condensate and oil from
the gas. A pressure-relief valve opens and closes to release the gas from the transformer and,
thus, limit the pressure in the transformer to a safe maximum value. As temperature of a
transformer rises, oil expands, and internal pressure increases, which may have to be relieved.
When temperature drops, pressure drops, and nitrogen may have to be added, depending on the
extent of the temperature change and pressure limits of the system.
Indoor Transformers
When oil-insulated transformers are located indoors, because of fire hazard, it is
often necessary to isolate these transformers in a fireproof vault.

Today, dry-type transformers are used extensively for indoor installations. These
transformers are cooled and insulated by air and are not encased in sealed tanks
like liquid-filled units. Enclosures in which they are mounted must have sufficient
space for entrance, for circulation of air, and for discharge of hot air. Dry-type
transformers are enclosed in sheet metal cases with a cool air entrance at the
bottom and a hot air discharge near the top. They may or may not have fans for
increased air flow.

In addition to personnel hazards, indoor transformer fires are extremely expensive

and detrimental to plants, requiring extensive cleanup, long outages, and lost
generation. Larger indoor transformers, used for station service and generator
excitation, should have differential relaying so that a fault can be interrupted
quickly before a fire can ensue. Experience has shown that transformer protection
by fuses alone is not adequate to prevent fires in the event of a short circuit.