AUTOMATA THEORY AND

COMPUTATION (ICS3253)
Week 3 – Introduction #2
CLASS 2
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS 2

 Definition of Relation: A relation on sets S and T is a set of ordered pairs (s,t),

where

 S and T need not be different

 The set of all first elements is the domain of the relation, and
 The set of all second elements is the range of the relation
>>> EXAMPLE 3

 Sets S and T are disjoint

 Set S = {a,b,c,d,e}
 Set T = {w,x,y,z}

 Then, a relation on S and T is

R={(a,y),(c,w),(c,z),(d,y)}
>>> REPRESENTATION 4
FUNCTIONS 5
 Suppose every element of S occurs exactly once as the first element of an
ordered pair
 Every element of S has exactly one arrow arising from it – this relation is a
function
FUNCTIONS AS RELATIONS AND KINDS OF FUNCTIONS 6

 A function is a relation from A to B, i.e., a subset of A x B, such that each

belongs to a unique ordered pair (a,b) in f
 Functions are:
 One-to-one (Injection): if different elements in domain have distinct images in
the range - implies
 Onto (Surjection): if each element of the range is the image of some element of
A
 One-to-one onto (Bijection): both one-to-one and onto
 Invertible: inverse relation is a function from B to A
 a function is invertible if and only if it is both one-to-one and onto
QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS 7

 Q: Find whether from the set of integers to the set of integers is one-to-one
 Solution: The function is not one-to-one as, for example f(1)=f(-1)=1 but 1 -1
 Q: Given f is a function where A={a,b,c,d} and B={1,2,3} with f(a)=3, f(b)=2,
f(c)=1 and f(d)=3. Is the function f an onto function?
 Solution: Hint: draw the oval, map the elements
 in this case you will see that all three elements of the codomain (range) are
images of elements in the domain, therefore, we have f as on “onto” function
>>> COMPOSITION OF FUNCTION 8

 Given f(x) = 2x+3 and g(x)=3x+2, check if commutative law holds good for
composition of functions
>>> 9

 Check whether the mapping f: where defined by is one to one and onto
 Solution: x=set of all non-zero real numbers. Let . Then
 Hence, f is one to one
 For every non-zero real number there exists a non-zero real number such that
 Hence, every element is an image of . Therefore f is onto. Therefore f is one-
to-one and onto
GRAPHS AND TREES 10

 A graph G consists of a finite set V of objects (vertices) – a finite set E of

objects (edges), and a function that assigns to each edge of a subset {v, w},
where v and w are vertices (and may be the same)
 Thus, we write
>>> 11

 Given V={1,2,3,4} and E={e1, e2, e3, e4, e5}

 is defined by ()= ()={1,2 } | ()={4,3} | ()={1,3} and ()={2,4}
 Then, G(V,E, ) is a graph as shown here:
>>> 12
 Degree of a vertex: Number of edges having that vertex as an end point
 Loop: A graph may have an edge from a vertex to itself, such an edge is called a loop
 Isolated vertex: A vertex with zero as degree is called an isolated vertex
 Adjacent vertices: A pair of vertices that determine an edge are adjacent vertices
 Path: A path in a graph G consists of a pair (V, E) of sequences
 Circuit: A path that begins and ends at the same vertex
 Simple Path: A path is called simple if no vertex appears more than once in the vertex
sequence
 Connected Graph: Connected if there is a path from any vertex in the graph, the graph is
disconnected
 Components: If graph is disconnected, the various connected pieces are called the
components of the graph
>>> 13
 In the graph below, ‘e’ is isolated, vertices ‘a’ and ‘b’ are adjacent, vertices ‘a’
and ‘d’ are not adjacent
>>> 14

 Connected graphs:
>>> 15

 Disconnected graphs:
>>> 16

 A walk is a sequence of edges, where the finish vertex of each edge is the start
vertex of the next edge
 Tree: A graph if it is connected and has no simple cycle
 A path is a cycle if it starts and ends in the same node – a simple cycle is one
that does not repeat any nodes except for the first and last
 Directed graph: A graph that has arrows instead of lines
 Outdegree: The number of arrows pointing from a particular node is
outdegree of that node
 Indegree: The number of arrows pointing to a particular node
STRINGS AND LANGUAGES 17
 Alphabet: Defined as a finite set of symbols
 Roman Alphabet: {a,b,c, … , z}
 Binary Alphabet: {0,1}
 String: A string over an alphabet is a finite sequence of symbols from that
alphabet, which is usually written next to one another and not separated by
commas
 If = {0,1}, then 001001 is a string over
 If = {a,b,c,…,z} then axyrpqstcd is a string over
 Length of String: Length as a sequence, written as |w|
 |100010| = 6
 Empty string: String with zero length
>>> 18

 Reverse String: if w=w1w2…wn where each wi , the reverse of w is wnwn-1…w1

 Substring: z is a substring of w if z appears consecutively within w
 deck is a substring of abcdeckabcjkl
 Concatenation: Assume a string x of length m and string y of length n, the
concatenation of x and y is written xy which is the string obtained by
appending y to the end of x
 Concatenating string to itself many times, use the superscript notation
 xxxxx…x = xk (where k is the length)
 Suffix: If w = xv for some x, then v is a suffix of w
 Prefix: If w = vy for some y, then v is a prefix of w
>>> 19

 Lexicographic ordering: The same as the dictionary ordering, except that

shorter strings precede longer strings
 {0,1} is (, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, 001 …}
 Language: Any set of string over an alphabet is a language
 Infinite languages L is denoted as L = {w * : w has property P}
 L1 = {w {0,1}* : w has an equal number of 0s and 1s}
 L2 = {w * : w=wR} where wR is the reverse string of w
QUESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS 20

 Given = {a,b}, obtain *

 Give an example of a finite language in
 Given L={anbn : n0}, check if the strings aabb, aaaabbbb, abb are in the language L
 Solution:
 * = {, a, b, aa, ab, ba, bb, aaa, bbb …}
 aabb is a string in L
 aaaabbbb is a string in L
 However, abb is not a string in L
QUESTIONS 21

 Let L = {ab, aa, baa}. Which of the following strings are in L*?
 abaabaaabaa
 aaaabaaaa
 baaaaabaaaab
 baaaaabaa
 baaaaabaaaaabbb
 babaaaabaaaab
ENOUGH?
See you next week