Horizontal Alignment

Transportation Engineering I
 Horizontal Alignment
• Along circular path, vehicle undergoes
centripetal acceleration towards center of
curvature (lateral acceleration).
• Balanced by superelevation and weight of
vehicle (friction between tire and roadway).
• Design based on appropriate relationship
between design speed and curvature and
their relationship with side friction and
super elevation.
Vehicle Cornering

Rv Fcp
Fcn

Fc


e
Wn 1 ft
W Ff

Ff Wp

• Figure illustrates the forces acting on
a vehicle during cornering. In this
figure,  is the angle of inclination, W
is the weight of the vehicle in pounds
with Wn and Wp being the weight
normal and parallel to the roadway
surface respectively.
• Ff is the side frictional force, Fc is the
centrifugal force with Fcp being the
centrifugal force acting parallel to the
roadway surface, Fcn is the
centrifugal force acting normal to the
roadway surface, and Rv is the
radius defined to the vehicle’s
traveled path in ft.
• Some basic horizontal curve
relationships can be derived by
summing forces parallel to the
roadway surface.
Wp + Ff = Fcp
• From basic physics this equation can
be written as
WV 2 WV 2
W sin   fs[W cos   sin  ]  cos 
gRv gRv
• Where fs is the coefficient of side
friction, g is the gravitational constant
and V is the vehicle speed (in ft per
second).
• Dividing both the sides of the
equation by W cos ;
sin  cos  WV 2 sin  WV 2 cos 
W  fs[W  ]
cos  cos  gRv cos  gRv cos 
V2
tan   f s  (1  f s tan  )
gRv
• The term tan is referred to as the
super elevation of the curve and is
denoted by ‘e’.
• Super elevation is tilting the roadway
to help offset centripetal forces
developed as the vehicle goes
around a curve.
• The term ‘fs’ is conservatively set
equal to zero for practical
applications due to small values that
‘fs’ and ‘’ typically assume.
• With e = tan, equation can be
rearranged as
2
V
Rv 
g ( f s  e)
• In actual design of a horizontal curve, the
engineer must select appropriate values of e
and fs.
• Super-elevation value ‘e’ is critical since
– high rates of super-elevation can cause vehicle
steering problems at exits on horizontal curves
– and in cold climates, ice on road ways can
reduce fs and vehicles are forced inwardly off the
curve by gravitational forces.
• Values of ‘e’ and ‘fs’ can be obtained from
AASHTO standards.
 Horizontal Curve
Fundamentals
• For connecting straight tangent
sections of roadway with a curve,
several options are available.
• The most obvious is the simple curve,
which is just a standard curve with a
single, constant radius.
• Other options include;
– compound curve, which consists of two
or more simple curves in succession ,
– and spiral curves which are continuously
changing radius curves.
 Basic Geometry

Horizontal
Tangent Tangent
Curve
Tangent Vs. Horizontal Curve
• Predicting speeds for tangent and
horizontal segments is different
• May actually be easier to predict
speeds on curves than tangents
– Speeds on curves are restricted to a few
well defined variables (e.g. radius,
superelevation)
– Speeds on tangents are not as
restricted by design variables (e.g.
driver attitude)
Elements of Horizontal
Curves
PI

E
T
L M 


PC PT

R R


 

• Figure shows the basic elements of a
simple horizontal curve. In this figure
– R is the radius (measured to center line of the
road)
– PC is the beginning point of horizontal curve
– T is tangent length
– PI is tangent intersection
  is the central angle of the curve
– PT is end point of curve
– M is the middle ordinate
– E is the external distance
– L is the length of the curve
 Degree of Curve
• It is the angle subtended by a 100-ft arc
along the horizontal curve.
• Is a measure of the sharpness of curve
and is frequently used instead of the
radius in the actual construction of
horizontal curve.
• The degree of curve is directly related to
the radius of the horizontal curve by
5729.6
D
R
• A geometric and 
trigonometric analysis T  R tan
of figure, reveals the 2
following relationships  
 1 
PI E  R  1
 cos(  ) 

E
T
L M   
 2 


PC PT
  
M  R1  cos( ) 
R R  2 

 
 100
L
D
Stopping Sight Distance and
Horizontal Curve Design
SSD

Ms

Sight
Obstruction
Highway
Rv
Centerline Critical
inside lane
s
• Adequate stopping sight distance
must also be provided in the design
of horizontal curves.
• Sight distance restrictions on
horizontal curves occur when
obstructions are present.
• Such obstructions are frequently
encountered in highway design due
to the cost of right of way acquisition
and/or cost of moving earthen
materials.
• When such an obstruction exists, the
stopping sight distance is measured
along the horizontal curve from the
center of the traveled lane.
• For a specified stopping sight
distance, some distance, Ms, must
be visually cleared, so that the line of
sight is such that sufficient stopping
sight distance is available.
• Equations for computing SSD
relationships for horizontal curves
can be derived by first determining
the central angle, s, for an arc equal
to the required stopping sight
distance.
• Assuming that the length of the horizontal
curve exceeds the required SSD, we have
100 s
SSD 
D
Combining the above equation with following
5729.6
D
R
we get;
57.296 SSD
s 
Rv
• Rv is the radius to the vehicle’s
traveled path, which is also assumed
to be the location of the driver’s eye
for sight distance, and is again taken
as the radius to the middle of the
innermost lane,
• and s is the angle subtended by an
arc equal to SSD in length.
• By substituting equation for s in equation
of middle ordinate, we get the following
equation for middle ordinate;
  28.65SSD  
Ms  Rv 1  cos  

  Rv 

• Where Ms is the middle ordinate

necessary to provide adequate stopping
sight distance. Solving further we get;
Rv  1  Rv  M s 
SSD   cos  
28.65   Rv 
 Max e
• Controlled by 4 factors:
– Climate conditions (amount of ice and snow)
– Terrain (flat, rolling, mountainous)
– Frequency of slow moving vehicles which
influenced by high superelevation rates
– Highest in common use = 10%, 12% with no
ice and snow on low volume gravel-surfaced
roads
– 8% is logical maximum to minimized slipping
by stopped vehicles
Radius Calculation (Example)

Design radius example: assume a

maximum e of 8% and design speed
of 60 mph, what is the minimum
radius?
fmax = 0.12 (from Green Book)
Rmin = _____602________________
15(0.08 + 0.12)

Rmin = 1200 feet

Radius Calculation (Example)

For emax = 4%?

Rmin = _____602_________
15(0.04 + 0.12)
Rmin = 1,500 feet
 Sight Distance Example
A horizontal curve with R = 800 ft is part of a
2-lane highway with a posted speed limit of
35 mph. What is the minimum distance
that a large billboard can be placed from
the centerline of the inside lane of the
curve without reducing required SSD?
Assume p/r =2.5 and a = 11.2 ft/sec2
SSD = 1.47vt + _________v2____
30(__a___  G)
32.2
 Sight Distance Example

SSD = 1.47(35 mph)(2.5 sec) +

_____(35 mph)2____ = 246 feet
30(__11.2___  0)
32.2
 Sight Distance Example

m = R(1 – cos [28.65 S])

R
m = 800 (1 – cos [28.65 {246}]) = 9.43
feet 800

(in radians not degrees)

 Horizontal Curve Example

• Deflection angle of a 4º curve is 55º25’, PC

at station 238 + 44.75. Find length of
curve,T, and station of PC.
• D = 4º
  = 55º25’ = 55.417º
• D = _5729.58_ R = _5729.58_ = 1,432.4 ft
R 4
 Horizontal Curve Example

• D = 4º
  = 55.417º
• R = 1,432.4 ft
• L = 2R = 2(1,432.4 ft)(55.417º) = 1385.42ft
360 360
 Horizontal Curve Example

• D = 4º
  = 55.417º
• R = 1,432.4 ft
• L = 1385.42 ft
• T = R tan  = 1,432.4 ft tan (55.417) = 752.29 ft
2 2
 Stationing Example

Stationing goes around horizontal curve.

For previous example, what is station of
PT?
PC = 238 + 44.75
L = 1385.42 ft = 13 + 85.42
Station at PT = (238 + 44.75) + (13 +
85.42) = 252 + 30.17
 Suggested Steps on
Horizontal Design
1. Select tangents, PIs, and general curves
make sure you meet minimum radii
2. Select specific curve radii/spiral and
calculate important points (see lab) using
formula or table (those needed for design,
plans, and lab requirements)
3. Station alignment (as curves are
encountered)
4. Determine super and runoff for curves and
put in table (see next lecture for def.)
5. Add information to plans
Geometric Design – Horizontal
Alignment (1)
• Horizontal curve
– Plan view, profile, staking,
stationing
– type of horizontal curves
– Characteristics of simple circular
curve
• Stopping sight distance on
horizontal curves
• Spiral curve
Lecture 8
 Plan view and profile

24
+0
23+00

0
22+00
21+00
20+00
19+00
18+00
17+0
16

0
+0
0
15
+0
0

plan

700
700
600
500
profile 400
300
200

15+00 16+00 17+00 18+00 19+00 20+00 21+00 22+00 23+00 24+00
Surveying and Stationing

• Staking: route surveyors define the

geometry of a highway by “staking” out
the horizontal and vertical position of the
route and by marking of the cross-section
at intervals of 100 ft.

• Station: Start from an origin by stationing

0, regular stations are established every
100 ft., and numbered 0+00, 12 + 00
(=1200 ft), 20 + 45 (2000 ft + 45) etc.
Horizontal Curve Types
 Curve Types
1. Simple curves with spirals
2. Broken Back – two curves same direction
(avoid)
3. Compound curves: multiple curves
connected directly together (use with
caution) go from large radii to smaller radii
and have R(large) < 1.5 R(small)
4. Reverse curves – two curves, opposite
direction (require separation typically for
superelevation attainment)
 1. Simple Curve
Circular
arc 


R

Straight road
sections
 2. Compound Curve

Circular arcs
R1

R2
Straight road
sections
3. Broken Back Curve

Circular arc

Straight road
sections
4. Reverse Curve

Circular arcs

Straight road
sections
 5. Spiral

R = Rn

R=

Straight road
section
 Angle measurement
90
60

30

180 0

(a) degree (b) Radian

1   / 180radians  0.0174532 radians

1radian  (180 /  )  57.2957 
As the subtended arc is proportional to the radius
of the circle, then the radian measure of the angle
Is the ratio of the length of the subtended arc to
the radius of the circle

radian measure  R  arc length

• Define horizontal Curve:
• Circular Horizontal Curve Definitions
• Radius, usually measured to the centerline of the road, in
ft.
•  = Central angle of the curve in degrees
• PC = point of curve (the beginning point of the horizontal
curve)
• PI = point of tangent intersection
• PT = Point of tangent (the ending point of the horizontal
curve)
• T = tangent length in ft.
• M = middle ordinate from middle point of cord to middle
point of curve in ft.
• E = External distance in ft.
• L = length of curve
• D = Degree of curvature (the angle subtended by a 100-ft
arc* along the horizontal curve)
• C = chord length from PC to PT * Note: use chord in practice
 PI

T
E
L

 M 
PC 2 C 2 PT
 
90  90 
2 2

R R
 
2 2

Key measures of the curve

M  R[1  cos( / 2)]

100(180 /  ) 18000 5729.57 1
D   E  R[( )  1]
R R R cos( / 2)
or , 
L R
100 180
D  57.2957
R
 
T  R tan C  2 R sin
2 2
180 / 

Note converts from radians to degrees

Example:

A horizontal curve is designed with a 2000-ft

radius, the curve has a tangent length of 400 ft
and
The PI is at station 103 + 00, determine the
stationing of the PT.

T  R tan
Solution: 2

400  2000 tan
2
  22.62

L R  789.58 ft
180

PC  (103  00)  (4  00)  99  00

PT  PC  L  (99  00)  (7  89.58)  106  89.58

Sight Distance on Horizontal Curve:
Minimum sight distance (for safety) should
be equal to the safe stopping distance

Sight Distance

Highway Centerline

PC M
PT
Line of sight

Sight Obstruction
Centerline of inside lane

R R
 To provide minimum sight
distance:
28.65d s
M  R[1  cos( )]
R

Or, by the degree of

curvature, D
5729.57 dD
M [1  cos( s )] Try yourself
D 200

Where, ds = safe v2
d s  1.47v * t 
a
stopping distance, ft. 30(
32.2
 0.01G )

and, v = design speed, mi/h

t = reaction time, secs
G = grade, %
ds = stopping distance, in ft.
a =deceleration rate, 11.2 ft/s2, recommended by Green
Example:
A 6 degree curve (measured at the centerline of
the inside lane) is being designed for a
highway
with a design speed of 70 mi/hr., the grade is
level, the driver reaction time is taken as 2.5 s
(ASSHTO’s standard value). What is the closest
place that a roadside object (trees etc) can be
Placed?
Solution: 2
70
d s  1.47 * 2.5 * 70   726.6 ft
30(0.348  0.01* 0)

The closest place of a object is given by:

5729.58 726.6 * 6
M [1  cos( )]  68.3 ft
6 200
 Spiral Curve:

Spiral curves are curves with a

continuously changing radii,
they are sometimes used on
high-speed roadways with
sharp horizontal curves and
are sometimes used to
gradually introduce the super
elevation of an upcoming
horizontal curve