Motivation in Organizations

MOTIVATION
The force that energizes behavior directs behavior causes behavior to persist

A Simple Model of Motivation

NEED-Creates desire to fulfill needs (food, friendship, recognition, achievement).

BEHAVIORResults in actions to fulfill needs.

REWARDS-Satisfy needs; intrinsic or extrinsic rewards.

FEEDBACK-Reward informs person whether behavior was appropriate and should be used again.

Basic Approaches to Motivation

Traditional Approach (Economic Man) Human Relations Approach (Social Man) Human Resource Approach (X & Y) Contemporary Approaches: 3 types
Content theories Process theories Reinforcement theories

Human Resource Approach

Theory X vs. Theory Y
Douglas McGregor

ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT PEOPLE AT WORK:

Theory X People dislike work and avoid responsibility. They must be threatened or bribed to put forth effort. Traditional management and human relations had Theory X assumptions.

ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT PEOPLE AT WORK:

Theory Y People want work and responsibility and will work hard under the right circumstances. Management must provide those circumstances. MBO and modern management has Theory Y assumptions.

Rewards are of Two Types:

Intrinsic rewards--satisfactions a person receives in the process of performing a particular action--given by oneself. (Internally generated) Extrinsic rewards--given by another person. (Externally generated)

Four Content Theories

A group of theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people.

Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow) ERG Theory (Alderfer) Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg) Acquired Needs Theory (McClelland)

Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Theory Content Theory 1 of 4

Self-Actualization Needs represent the need for self-fulfillment Esteem Needs desire for a positive self-image and to receive attention Belongingness Needs desire to be accepted by ones peers Safety Needs safe and secure physical and emotional environment Physiological Needs most basic human physical needs

MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

Potential Means of Fulfillment at Work

Self-Actualization Needs Esteem Needs Belongingness Needs Safety Needs Physiological Needs

Challenging projects, opportunities for innovation and creativity, training Important projects, recognition, prestigious office location Good coworkers, peers, superiors, customers Job security; benefits, like life insurance; safety regulations Basic pay, work space, heat, water, company cafeteria

ONLY UNSATISFIED NEEDS MOTIVATE BEHAVIOR

-According to Maslow

MASLOWS THEORY OF NEED IMPORTANCE (as interpreted by J.D. Hunger)

High Physiological Security/Safety Social/Belong. Esteem Self-Actualization

Need Imp. To Person

Low Low High

Psychological Maturity

ERG Theory Content Theory 2 of 4

Growth Needs human potential, personal growth, and increased competence
Relatedness Needs the need for satisfactory relationships with others

Existence Needs the needs for physical well-being

ERG THEORY
Satisfactionprogression principle Selfactualization Self-esteem Esteem Belongingness Security Physiological
Growth Needs

Frustrationregression principle

Relatedness Needs

Existence Needs

Think of a time when you really felt GOOD about your job.
What was happening then?

Think of a time when you really felt BAD about your job.
What was happening then?

Traditional thinking about motivation and satisfaction

Job Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction

Assumed same factors causing satisfaction would cause dissatisfaction when absent. Satisfaction & dissatisfaction thus one factor according to this view.

HERZBERGS FINDINGS
Apathy Motivators No Job Satisfaction Hygiene Job Dissatisfaction No Job Dissatisfaction Job Satisfaction

Thus satisfaction and dissatisfaction are really two factors!

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory Content Theory 3 of 4 (Daft, p.553)

Area of Satisfaction

Motivators
Achievement Recognition Responsibility Work itself Personal growth

Motivators influence level of satisfaction.

Area of Dissatisfaction

Hygiene Factors
Working conditions Pay and security Company policies Supervisors Interpersonal relationships

Hygiene factors influence level of dissatisfaction.

HERZBERGS RECOMMENDATIONS:
1. Ensure that hygiene factors are adequate.

2. Focus on adding motivation factors into the jobs (enrich the job).
The focus, above all, is on motivation factors. Excellent motivation factors can make up for poor hygiene factors. E.g., soldiers

If You Cannot Enrich Jobs, HERZBERG Says:

1. Find people with less ability who will find a dull job challenging. (e.g., McDonalds)

If cant do, then:

2. Bribe workers with lots of hygiene factors to keep them quiet (GM & Ford). If cant do, then: 3. Learn to get used to low morale, high absenteeism, tardiness, union problems, and strikes!

McClellands Acquired Needs Theory

Content Theory 4 of 4

Achievement: desire to master skills & accomplish moderately-difficult goals Affiliation: desire to form relationships & be sociable Power: desire to influence or control others or organizational outcomes

McClellands use of the Thematic Apperception Test (T.A.T.) as a measure of need strength

According to McClelland, a persons need strength is a personality factor. Such needs thus are fairly constant over time, but are acquired through experience.

McCLELLANDS NEED TO ACHIEVE (n Ach)

People with a high need to achieve:
Like moderately-difficult goals and take calculated risks

Seek competitive situations where personal effort counts and can get quick feedback Entrepreneurs typically have a high n Ach

High

About 50 years n Ach

Economic Growth

Low time

McClellands hypothesis that a countrys need for achievement determines its economic growth.

NEED PROFILE FOR SUCCESSFUL MANAGERS

Moderate to high need for institutional power Moderate need for achievement At least a minimum need for affiliation

2 Process Theories (Daft, pp. 554-557)

A group of theories that explain how employees select behaviors with which to meet their needs and determine whether their choices were successful.

Equity Theory
focuses on individuals perceptions of how fairly they are treated compared with others motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they expect for performance

Expectancy Theory
motivation depends on individuals expectations about their ability to perform tasks and receive desired rewards concerned not with identifying types of needs but with the thinking process that individuals use to achieve rewards based on the effort, performance, and desirability of outcomes

EQUITY THEORY (Adams)

Outcome (self) Inputs (self) = Outcomes (other) Inputs (other)

If not equal, tension within self causes person to work to equalize the ratios

The focus in Equity Theory is on extrinsic rewards primarily.

Methods for Dealing with

Inequity
Change Inputs Change Outcomes Distort Perceptions Leave the Job

EXPECTANCY THEORY

P Expectancy

O Expectancy

Valence What value do I place on the potential outcome?

What is the probability that I can perform at the required level if I try?

What is the probability that my good performance will lead to desired outcomes?

Effort

Performance

Outcomes

EXPANDED EXPECTANCY THEORY MODEL

E P Expectancy O U T C O M E S Intrinsic Rewards Perceived Equitable Rewards

Valence

EFFORT

PERFORMANCE

Satisfaction Extrinsic Rewards

P O Expectancy

Performance = M x A x K
Performance on a job is a function of:

Motivation to put forth effort on a task Ability/Skills needed to do the task Knowledge of the required methodology to do the job well
Any one of these can substitute for another, but must be above zero or else no performance

USING EXPECTANCY THEORY TO IMPROVE JOB PERFORMANCE

1. Do employees believe that if they put forth sufficient effort on a job, they will achieve desired performance? (E P expectancy)
If not, they need training. Job may need redesign. Communicate goals. They may lack needed ability/skills or knowledge of how to do the job.

USING EXPECTANCY THEORY

2. Do employees believe that if they achieve desired performance, they will receive anticipated rewards and avoid negative outcomes? (P O expectancy) If not, check appraisal system. Is good performance rewarded? Equitable? Develop feedback system.

USING EXPECTANCY THEORY

3. Do employees believe that the rewards for good performance have value (valence) and are greater than possible negative outcomes?

If not,
find out what employees want as rewards. Make rewards available.

Expectancy Theory
Proposes that employees are motivated when they believe they can accomplish the task and the rewards for doing so are worth the effort.
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Expectancy Theory

Expectancy X Valence = Motivation

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4 Conditions for Expectancy Theory

Clear objectives

Performance tied to rewards

Rewards have value

Employees believe you

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Reinforcement Theory
Through the consequences for behavior, employees will be motivated to behave in predetermined ways.
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Types of
Reinforcement

Positive Avoidance

Punishment
Extinction
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Giving Praise
Planning
Leading

1. Tell the employee exactly what was done correctly.

2. Tell the employee why the behavior is important.

3. Stop for a moment of silence.

4. Encourage repeat performance

Organizing

Controlling

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Reinforcement Perspective on Motivation Positive reinforcement in the

administration of a pleasant and rewarding consequence. Avoidance learning is the removal of an unpleasant consequence following a desired behavior.

Reinforcement Tools
Punishment is the imposition of unpleasant outcomes on an employee.

Extinction is the withdrawal of a positive reward, behavior is no longer reinforced and hence is less likely to occur in the future.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY
Increases Behavior Effect on Behavior Decreases Behavior Extinction Encourages Maturity Punishment Encourages Immaturity Positive Reinforcement Negative Reinforcement

Effect on Maturity

BASIC REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES (Daft, p. 560)

Continuous vs. Partial (4 kinds) Variable schedules best - why?

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT
Fixed Interval
Spacing or Timing of Reinforcements

Fixed Ratio Reinforcement administered every xth occurrence of the behavior

Fixed

Reinforcement administered every x minutes Variable Interval

Variable Ratio # of occurrences of Timing of reinforcers behavior required to Variable varies randomly around receive reinforcer some average time varies randomly period around some average number Passage of Time Number of Times Behavior Occurs Basis for Determining Frequency of Reinforcement

WHAT NEEDS ARE IMPORTANT TO PEOPLE?

Maslows Hierarchy + ERG Theory Need Strength Changes
McClellands Acquired Needs Theory
need to achieve need for power need for affiliation

Need strength is fairly constant

WHAT REWARDS ARE IMPORTANT TO PEOPLE?

Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
Intrinsic Most Important

Skinners Reinforcement Theory

Extrinsic Are Key

Adams Equity Theory

Extrinsic Very Important

The Motivation Process with the Motivation Theories

1. Need
(Unmet need or want to be satisfied at work)

Content Motivation Theories

Hierarchy of Needs Theory ERG Theory Two-Factor Theory Acquired Needs Theory

2. Motive
(Selecting behavior to satisfy need)

Process Motivation Theories

Equity Theory Goal-Setting Theory Expectancy Theory
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(continued)

3. Behavior
(Employee action to satisfy need)

(Manager behavior and/or natural outcome of employee action)

4. Consequence
Reinforcement Theory

(The degree to which the need is met and for how long before dissatisfaction reoccurs, creating an unmet need)
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5. Satisfaction or Dissatisfaction

How can we treat different people differently and still be fair to all the workers?

Motivation:
From Concepts to Applications

1. Management By Objectives

2. Behavior Modification. 3. Participative Management. 4. Performance-based Compensation. 5. Flexible Benefits. 6. Comparable worth. 7. Alternative Work schedules. 8. Job Redesign

Management By Objectives: A program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress.
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Behavior Modification: OB Mod - A program where managers identify performancerelated employee behaviors and then implement an intervention strategy to strengthen describe behaviors and weaken undesirable behaviors.

Behavior Modification:

Participative Management: A process where subordinates share a significant degree of decision-making power with their immediate superiors.

Quality Circles: - A work group of employees who meet regularly to discuss their quality problems, investigate causes, recommend solutions, and take corrective actions.
Performance-Based Compensation: - Paying employees on the basis of some performance measure. - Piece-rate Pay Plan.

Behavior Modification:

Flexible Benefits: - Employees tailor their benefit program to meet their personal needs by picking and choosing from a menu of benefit options.

Comparable Worth:

- A doctrine that holds that jobs equal in value to an organization should be equally compensated, whether or not the work content of those jobs is similar.

Alternate Work Schedules:

- Compressed Workweek - Flextime

Job Redesign:

- Job rotation - Job enlargement - Job enrichment

Self-Managed Work Teams:

= Groups that are free to determine how the goals assigned to them are to be accomplished and how tasks are to be allocated.

Implications for Performance and Satisfaction:

1. Recognize individual differences.

2. Use goals and feedback. 3. Allow employees to participate in decisions that affect them. 4. Link rewards to performance. 5. Check the system for equity.