Working with Content

Key elements in a study proposal

TOPIC
What question/problem
does the study address?
 nt”
ta
po r
“Im opic
Selecting a TOPIC
T
“Step 1: Select a research problem”
Supe Av
rviso ai
s it y r la
uri o bl
C ? e
Da
ta
“Req
from uest” Profes
the B sional
oss or per
sonal
exper
di n g ience
Fun
 Key elements in a study proposal

TOPIC
What question/problem
does the study address?

STUDY DESIGN BENEFIT

How will study achieve
its objectives?
Steps in Designing and Conducting
an Investigation
• Specify TOPIC and PURPOSE
• Formulate GENERAL OBJECTIVES
• Formulate SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• Formulate HYPOTHESES
• Determine appropriate STUDY DESIGN
• Choose and define STUDY VARIABLES
• Specify method of DATA COLLECTION
• Define STUDY POPULATION & SELECTION
• Develop DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT
 TOPIC
Sociodemographic and behavioral factors
associated with opportunity and use of
drugs among Palestinian adults

AIDS awareness and HIV/AIDS-related

knowledge in Ethiopia
 TOPIC

Regional Analysis of Congenital

Malformations in Palestine,
2001 - 2005
 Purpose
The aim of this study is to determine the
rates of congenital malformations and
their characteristics in different regions
of Palestine, in order to help researchers
to identify potential risk factors and
policymakers to develop further
investigation and implement appropriate
birth defects prevention policies and
consider local health care implications.
 GENERAL OBJECTIVES
1. To estimate the overall prevalence of
congenital malformations among live births
in different regions of residence in Palestine,
for the years 2001-2005 .
2. To describe the distribution of annual
prevalence of congenital malformations
among live births by socio demographic and
birth related characteristics for the years,
2001-2005 in Palestine.
 GENERAL OBJECTIVES
3. To estimate the proportion of the most
frequent congenital malformation among all
congenital malformations by region of
residence
Steps in Designing and Conducting
an Investigation
• Specify TOPIC and PURPOSE
• Formulate GENERAL OBJECTIVES
• Formulate SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
Must:
•meet the purpose
•be clearly stated
•be measurable
•agree with study design
 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
To describe the distribution of annual prevalence of
congenital malformations among live births by
socio demographic and birth related characteristics
for the years, 2001-2005 in Palestine.
 According to socio demographic
characteristics (gender of infant, mothers'
age, mothers' education, mother's religion)
by year.
 According to birth related characteristics
[birth weight of infant, birth plurality
(singleton, twins and multiple deliveries)] by
year
 PREPARING THE OUTLINE
• Perhaps the most crucial stage in preparing a
successful study proposal or report

“Without a blueprint guiding his

work, the contractor builds a
lopsided/miss-matched/leaning
Tower of Pisa building that no
one would ever want to buy”
 OUTLINE
• Title
• Acknowledgments
• Abstract
• Background/ introduction
• Review of the literature.
• Statement of the problem
• Methods (proposed)
• Results (text, tables, figures)
• Discussion
• References
• (Timeline & Budget)
 Or in plain English...
• What do you want to do?
• Why do you want to do it?
• Why is it important? Who cares?
• Who’s already done something like this?
• How are you going to do it?
• Who is going to help you?
• How long will it take?
• How much will it cost?
 Title
• The title defines the contents of your
manuscript and sells it
• For lack of time, most readers will not read the
whole article - your title will be read by many
more people than the rest of your manuscript
• Express only one idea or subject in your title
using as few words as possible (12 maximum)
 Title

• Write the title early in the writing process

and critique it the same as any other
section of the manuscript
• Make certain that your title matches the
final version of your article
 Title
• Include all necessary key words to
correctly and fully convey the content of
the study.
• Delete all words that are redundant or do
not contribute to the essential meaning.
• Order the words to reflect accurately the
meaning you intend.
• Do not use abbreviations.
 Title page

• Title of the thesis( proposal)

• Name of author
• Year
• Name of department and university
 Acknowledgements

• Essential part of thesis.

• Acknowledge all who have
helped/contributed to the work.
• Must be justified
 Abstract
•The abstract is a condensed version of the
manuscript
• It must be concise, easy to read and cover
the important points of the paper
• An effective abstract improves the chances
of your manuscript being accepted,
encourages people to read it, and increases
its impact
• Although it is usually the first section read
and sets the tone of the paper for the
reviewer, write it last
 Abstract
• Structured or unstructured
• Word limit
 Background
• EXTENDS previous work
• AVOIDS previous mistakes and/or errors
• IS UNIQUE because it does not follow the
same path as previously followed
 Background
• Background material based on:
 relevant (published) literature
 research question and objectives
 study purpose
 audience
 Introduction
• Consists of an overview of the research problem
and some indication of why the problem is worth
exploring or what contribution the proposed
study is apt to make to theory and/or practice.
• Few pages in length
• Broad context..... Focused definition of the
problem.
• Indicate the assumptions and hypothesis of the
study, identify key variables.
• Should include a synposis of the arguments that
explain the rationale for the study.
 Review of the literature

• The longest section of the research

proposal.
• Provides a context for the proposed study
and demonstrates why it is important and
timely.
• Needs to clarify the relationship between
the proposed study and previous work
conducted on the topic.
 Review of the literature

• The place where the student’s critical

abilities as a scholar are tested and
evident.
• The purpose is not to convince the reader
that the writer is knowledgeable about the
work of others... Don’t write a boring list of
previous studies....
• Purpose is to formulate an argument
based on previous work.
 Review of the literature

• The literature review is not a compilation

of facts and feelings, but a coherent
argument that leads to the description of a
proposed study.
• Ask yourself: ” where am I going with
this?”
• Do not site every study that was done or
everything that you know. Good literature
review is selective.
 Review of the literature

• Your task is to build an argument not a

library.
• Each sentence needs to be there for a
purpose.
• The relevent studies need to be critiqued
rather than reported.
• Be objective.
 Scientific Literature Review –
What is it?
It is a critical analysis of the research
conducted on a particular topic or
question in the field of science
It is not merely a collection of article
abstracts, it is a synthesis of the
published (and unpublished) knowledge
 Literature Review
 Reading a comprehensive range of
existing material and sources in the
general area of your study
 Selecting those that will be most relevant
and significant for your particular project
 Understanding and Analyzing the central
findings and arguments
 Synthesizing the findings and Integrating
them into the research proposal/article
 Scientific Literature Review –
Why do it?
• Helps to clarify & define parameters for your
own scientific study
• What is already known? “State of the art”
• What remains to be learned in the field?
• Highlight mistakes, difficulties, or ethical
issues encountered by others in order to save
time, money & headache with your own study
• Identify potential partners (competitors)
 Scientific Literature Review–
When to do it?

When preparing the proposal, and

again when writing the final report
Reviewing the literature

Searching the literature

Although, the quality of the Review

depends on the quality of the search
Searching for published evidence
 "If a person tells you: I searched
but I didn’t find – don’t believe
him; I didn’t search and I found –
don’t believe him; I searched and I
found – believe him!”
 Information sources
• Peer-reviewed journals (e.g., Science,
Nature, American Journal of Public Health,
International Journal of Epidemiology…)
• Non-peer reviewed journals (e.g.,
National Geographic, Popular Science)
• Internet – reputable organizations (e.g.,
WHO, World Bank)
• Internet – questionable sources
 Information sources

•
 Peer-reviewed journals (e.g., Science,
Nature, American Journal of Public Health,
International Journal of Epidemiology…)
• Non-peer reviewed journals (e.g.,
National Geographic, Popular Science)
• Internet – reputable organizations (e.g.,
WHO, World Bank)
• Internet – questionable sources

 Literature Search

• Size isn’t everything!

“Read not to contradict and confute, not
to believe and take for granted…but to
weigh and consider”
– Sir Francis Bacon, 1620
cited in Abramson & Abramson,1999
 Weighing the Evidence

• Publication year: how recent?

• Researchers: recognized authorities? potential
conflict of interest?
• Abstract: clear and concise?
• Topic (research question): clearly stated and
justified?
• Hypothesis: presented (for analytical
studies)?
• Concepts, theories, models, assumptions:
clearly described?
 Weighing the Evidence

• Methods:
– clearly presented?
– key variables defined?
– appropriate statistical/analytical procedures
and tests specified?
– Exclusions justified?
– missing data explained & handled
satisfactorily?
 Weighing the Evidence

• Results: all research questions addressed?

consistency in analysis?
• Tables and Graphs: clearly labeled?
• Discussion: results placed in the context of
existing knowledge? study strengths and
weaknesses presented & convincing?
• Conclusions: supported by data?
• References: recent? varied?
 Statement of the problem
• As a separate chapter or at the very end of
the literature review.
• Has to be very specific.
• Framed in the form of research questions
and hypothesis.
• Hypothesis are written in the present tense
and are written as positive assertions, not
as null hypothesis.
 Methods
• Explain clearly how you conducted your
study in order to:
– enable readers to evaluate the work
performed
– permit others to replicate your study
 Methods
• Study design
• Population
• Sampling techniques & sample size
justification
• Data collection tools/measurements
• Variable definitions & scales
• Statistical analysis
 Methods
“Balance between brevity (you cannot
describe every technical issue) and
completeness (you need to give adequate
detail so that readers know what
happened”
- www.sfedit.net
 Methodology
• Start with an introductory paragraph that
describes both the design of the study and
organization of the chapter.
Methodology-describing sample
• Describe the source and number of
subjects.
• The sampling design should be described.
• Exclusion and inclusion criteria
 Methodology- instrumentation
• Describe the particular measures you will
employ and how they will measure the
variables specified in your research
questions.
 Methodology-procedure
• Decription of how you did (or will do) it.
 Methodology- data analysis
• Forces you to think through how you will
treat the data from the time the proposal is
generated, rather than after the data
collection- saves pain and time.
 Methodology-limitations and
delimitations
• Delimitations imply limitations on the
research design that you have deliberately
imposed.
• Limitations refer to restrictions in the study
over which you have no control
 Presenting results
• Present the findings as clearly as possible-
just the facts.
• Do not put too much material-make a plan
first.
• Do not write down all results in the table-
lead the reader carefully through the
findings , making sure that the reader
knows what you consider to be the
important observations.
 Presenting results
• Start with a description of your sample- in
written or tabular form.
• Address research questions and hypothesis.
• Text-tables-figures???
• Tables:
1. Every table must be numbered
2. Every table must have a title.
3. Table footnotes
 Results
• Main & important secondary results
according to objectives
• Logical progression
• Use text & tables/figures, but avoid
repetition

Do not discuss the findings in the

Results section
 Figures
• Figures help tell the story
• Figures provide visual impact and are
often the best way to communicate the
primary findings
 Figures
A picture is worth a thousand words,
but only if it’s the right picture
 Figures

Percentage (± 95% CI) of male and female army personnel who

reported ever having used illicit drugs (life-time prevalence), 1982–2001,
Neumark et al., 2004
 Tables
• Tables are used to make an article more readable by removing numeric data from
the text to synthesize existing literature, to explain variables, or to present the
wording of survey questions
 Tables & Figures
• Each T/F must be introduced in the text
• Highlight in the text the main findings
(“take home message”) of each T/F; do
not repeat the information
 Tables & Figures
• Each T/F must be understandable on its own
without reference to the text (i.e., title,
footnotes)
• Number T/Fs according to appearance in text
• Maintain consistency across tables
 Discussion
• Start with brief summary of results
• Place findings in context of literature
• Strengths & Weaknesses (limitations)
• Conclusions & Recommendations

Do not present new findings in

the Discussion section
 Discussion
• A good discussion chapter typically contains the
following elements:
1. An overview of the significant findings of the study.
2. A consideration of the findings in light of existing
research studies.
3. Implications of the study for current theory.
4. A careful examination of findings that fail to support or
only partially support your hypothesis.
5. Limitations of the study that may affect the validity or
the generalizability of the results.
6. Recommendations for further research.
7. Implications of the study for professional practice or
applied settings (optional).
 References
• Every journal has very precise instructions for references
format
• Determine the journal to which you plan to submit your
manuscript and write your references accordingly (and
the manuscript according to the focus and style of the
targeted journal)
 References
• If you are writing a report, choose one style and BE CONSISTENT
• Sloppy references suggest sloppy research (or at least sloppy
writing)
 APA (A,B,C)
“… Other studies, however, failed to find an
area-level SES association with mortality and
postulate that sufficient characterization of
individual-level variables or methodological
approaches may account for the discrepant
findings (Malmstrom, Johansson, & Sundquist,
2001; Veugelers, Yip, & Kephart, 2001;
Sloggett & Joshi, 1994).”
 APA style
Malmstrom, M., Johansson, S. E., & Sundquist, J.
(2001). A hierarchical analysis of long-term illness
and mortality in socially deprived areas. Social
Science & Medicine, 53, 265–75.
Sloggett, A., & Joshi, H. (1994). Higher mortality in
deprived areas: community or personal
disadvantage?. BMJ, 309,1470-4.
Veugelers, P. J., Yip, A. M., & Kephart, G. (2001).
Proximate and contextual socioeconomic
determinants of mortality: Multilevel approaches
in a setting with universal health care coverage.
American Journal of Epidemiology, 154, 725–32.
 Vancouver style (1,2,3)

4. Bentley ME, Spratt K, Shepherd ME,

Gangakhedkar RR, Thilikavathi S, Bollinger RC, et.
al. HIV testing and counseling among men
attending sexually transmitted disease clinics in
Pune, India: changes in condom use and sexual
behavior over time. AIDS 1998;12:1869-1877.
5. Mekonnen Y, Sanders E, Aklilu M, Tsegaye A,
Rinke de Wit TF, Schaap A, et. al. Evidence of
changes in sexual behaviours among male factory
workers in Ethiopia. AIDS 2003;17:223-231.
 Bibliographical software
• search and retrieval of bibliographic subsets
• automated (and manual) collection and
organization of references from bibliographic
databases, library catalogues, etc;
• integration with word-processing software to
automatically insert and format citations
• formatting of references according to particular
bibliographic styles
 Bibliographical software

• EndNote
• Procite
• Reference Manager
• WriteNote
• RefViz
• Etc.
 References
• If you are writing a report, choose one
style and BE CONSISTENT
• Sloppy references suggest sloppy
research (or at least sloppy writing)
• 100% Text-Ref & Ref-Text correlation
• Consistency across references
• Accuracy is your responsibility
 References

• Follow vancover style for research in

science.
• Use endnote or any other reference
manager program.