EEE3352-ELECTROMECHANICS

AND MACHINES

TRANSFORMERS
 INTRODUCTION
• A transformer consists of at least two windings having a
common magnetic circuit.
• In practice, it is arranged that all or nearly all of the flux
linking the first winding also passes through the second
winding.
• This is achieved by having a well defined low reluctance
magnetic circuit between the two windings.
• When two inductors (or coils) are in a close proximity to
each other, the magnetic flux caused by current in one coil
links with the other coil, thereby inducing voltage in the
latter. This phenomenon is known as mutual inductance.
BASIC RELATIONS
 APPLICATIONS
• Transformers are the largest, the heaviest, and
often the costliest of circuit components.
• Nevertheless, they are indispensable passive
devices in electric circuits.
• The main application is converting energy from
electrical energy to electrical energy.
• They are among the most efficient machines, 95%
efficiency being common and 99% being achievable.
• Transformers are used:
To step up or step down voltage and current,
making them useful for power transmission and
distribution.
To isolate one portion of a circuit from another
(i.e., to transfer power without any electrical
connection).
As an impedance-matching device for
maximum power transfer.
In frequency-selective circuits whose operation
depends on the response of inductances.
 TRANSFORMER DESIGNS
• Due to diverse uses, there are many special
designs for transformers:
 Voltage transformers, current transformers,
power transformers, distribution
transformers, impedance-matching
transformers, audio transformers, single-
phase transformers, three phase transformers,
rectifier transformers, inverter transformers,
and more.
Transformer Photos

POWER TRANSFORMER
POWER TRANSFORMER HVDC TRANSFORMER
POLE-MOUNTED TRANSFORMER
CAPACITIVE VT

INDUCTIVE VT POWER TRANSFORMER

CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
• High Voltage-Current Transformers
Transformer as an Isolation Device
• Electrical isolation is said to exist between two
devices when there is no physical connection
between them.
• In a transformer, energy is transferred by
magnetic coupling, without electrical connection
between the primary circuit and secondary circuit.
• A rectifier is an electronic circuit that converts an
ac supply to a dc supply. A transformer is often
used to couple the ac supply to the rectifier.
• The transformer serves two purposes: first, it steps up
or steps down the voltage. Second, it provides
electrical isolation between the ac power supply and
the rectifier, thereby reducing the risk of shock hazards
in handling the electronic device.
• As a second example, a transformer is often used to
couple two stages of an amplifier, to prevent any dc
voltage in one stage from affecting the dc bias of the
next stage.
• Each amplifier stage is biased separately to operate in
a particular mode; the desired mode of operation
would be compromised without the transformer
providing dc isolation.
• Transformers are used in radio and TV receivers
to couple stages of high-frequency amplifiers.
• As a third example, consider the voltage across
11 kV lines. It is obviously not safe to connect a
voltmeter directly to such high-voltage lines.
• A transformer can be used both to electrically
isolate the line power from the voltmeter and to
step down the voltage to a safe level.
• Once, the voltmeter is used to measure the
secondary voltage, the turns ratio is used to
determine the line voltage on the primary side.
 Transformer as a Matching Device
• Recall that for maximum power transfer, the load resistance
RL must be matched with the source resistance Rs.
• In most cases, the two resistances are not matched; both are
fixed and cannot be altered.
• However, an iron-core transformer can be used to match the
load resistance to the source resistance. This is called
impedance matching.
• For example, to connect a loudspeaker to an audio power
amplifier requires a transformer, because the speaker’s
resistance is only a few ohms while the internal resistance of
the amplifier is several kilo ohms.
• Recall that the ideal transformer reflects its load
back to the primary with a scaling factor of n2
(considering a 1:n turn ratio).
• To match this reflected load RL/n2 with the source
resistance Rs, we set them equal;
RL
Rs  2
n
• This equation can be satisfied by proper selection of
the turns ratio n.
• Note that a step-down transformer (n<1) is needed
as the matching device when Rs>RL, and a step-up
(n>1) is required when Rs<RL.
 The Single-Phase Transformer
IDEAL TRANSFORMER
• There are four features of an ideal
transformer:
No reluctance of magnetic circuit (S=0)
No copper losses; R1=R2=0
No iron losses; PFe=0, Rp=infinity
 No leakage flux; ø1=ø2= ø
 FARADAY’S LAW
• Faraday’s law with ø1=ø2 for ideal transformer:
d1 d2
V1  N1 and V2  N 2
dt dt
• Turns ratio equals voltage ratio:
N1 V1

N 2 V2
• The applied magnetomotive force (mmf) is:
F1  F2  S , i1 N1  i2 N 2  S , S  0 for ideal case

i1 N 2 V N i
i1 N1  i2 N 2 and  . Thus, 1  1  2
i2 N1 V2 N 2 i1
 E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer
• On the primary side:
E1  4.44 fN1m
• On the secondary side:
E2  4.44 fN 2m
• The current both on the primary and secondary sides
and phase angles between voltage and current are
determined by the consumer’s load (not by power
station).
• The voltage level is determined by the power station.
 Examples
 The maximum flux density in the core of a 250/3000
volts , 50 Hz single-phase transformer is 1.2 Wb/m 2.
If the e.m.f. per turn is 8 volts, determine (i) primary
and secondary turns (ii) area of the core.
 The core of a 100 kVA, 11000/550 V, 50-Hz, 1-phase,
core type transformer has a cross-sectional area of
20 cm×20 cm. Find (i) the number of HV and LV
turns per phase and (ii) the emf per turn if the
maximum core density is not to exceed 1.3 Tesla.
Assume a stacking factor of 0.9. What will happen if
its primary voltage is increased by 10% on no-load?
 A single-phase transformer has 400 primary and
1000 secondary turns. The net cross-sectional area
of the core is 60 cm2. If the primary winding is
connected to a 50-Hz supply at 520-V, calculate (i)
the peak value of flux density in the core (ii) the
voltage induced in the secondary winding.
 A 25 kVA transformer has 500 turns on the primary
and 50 turns on the secondary winding. The
primary is connected to 3000-V, 50-Hz supply. Find
the full-load primary and secondary currents, the
secondary emf and the maximum flux in the core.
Neglect leakage drops and no-load primary current.
 Practical (Real) Transformer
• A real transformer has:
Leakage flux
Finite reluctance
Copper loss
Iron loss
 Winding resistances: R1 and R2-the designer
ensures that these are small.
 Ro, iron loss element (no-load element)-the
designer aims for a very high Ro to have low PFe.
• Leakage reactances, jX1 and jX2, represent the
effect of leakage flux. They are small compared to
any other reactances.
• Magnetizing reactance, jXo, comes about because
of finite reluctances.
I1 N1  I 2 N 2  S ; for ideal case, S  0, thus, I1 N1  I 2 N 2 .
For real transformers, S  0. Thus, let S  I  N1 and I1 N1  I 2 N 2 I  N1

I1  I  I O and I O  I  I
'
2
2
w  
2 1/ 2

• On no-load: I2=0, I1=Io≈Iµ (magnetising current).

• Magnetising current exists because of the finite
reluctance of the circuit.
• Note: X o  L  N 2 / S
V1 V1S
Thus, I   
j L j N 2
V1
Iw   I o cos o
Ro
Input no  load power , Wo  V1 I o cos o

• Taking Ro and jXo straight across supply lines is not

strictly legitimate, but since the series impedances
in the circuit are much smaller than the parallel
impedances, we can do this with insignificant
errors.
 • PHASOR DIAGRAMS OF A
REAL TRANSFORMER

VECTOR
DIAGRAM OF A
TRANSFORMER
ON NO-LOAD
 Phasor Diagrams Cont.
•  The primary voltage V1 has three components:
1. -E1, the induced e.m.f. which opposes V1
2. I1 R1, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I1
3. I1 X1, the drop across the reactance, leading I1 by 90o

• The secondary induced e.m.f. has also three

components,
 1. V2, the terminal voltage across the load
2. I2 R2, the drop across the resistance, in phase with I2
3. I2 X2, the drop across the reactance, leading I2 by 90o
 Phasor Diagram For Unity Power Factor Load
STEPS TO DRAW THE DIAGRAM:
1. Consider flux Φ as reference
2. E1 lags Φ by 90o. Reverse E1 to get -
E1.
3. E1 and E2 are inphase
4. Assume V2 in a particular direction
5. I2 is in phase with V2.
6. Add I2 R2 and I2 X2 to get E2.
7. Reverse I2 to get I2'.
8. Add Io and I2' to get I1.
9. Add I1 R1 and I1X1 to -E1 to get V1.
Angle between V1 and I1 is Φ1 and
cosΦ1 is primary power factor.
Remember that I1X1 leads I1
direction by 90o and I2 X2 leads I2
by 90o as current through
inductance lags voltage across
inductance by 90o.
 Phasor Diagram For Lagging Power Factor Load
• As load power factor is lagging
cosΦ2, the current I2 lags V2 by
angle Φ2.
• So the only changes in drawing
the phasor diagram is to draw
I2 lagging V2 by Φ2 in step 5
discussed earlier.
• Accordingly direction of I2 R2,
I2 X2, I2', I1, I1 R1 and I1X1 will
change.
• Remember that whatever may
be the power factor of load,
I2X2 leads I2 by 90o and I1X1
leads I1 by 90o.
 Phasor Diagram For Leading Power Factor Load
• As load power factor is
leading, the current I2
leads V2 by angle Φ2.
• So the change is to draw
I2 leading V2  by angle Φ2.
All other steps remain
the same as before.
• In conclusion, the
phasor diagram for the
transformer on load
depends on the nature
of the load power factor.
 TRANSFORMER RATING
• Transformers have the following major ratings:
 Apparent Power
 Voltage
 Current
 Frequency
• The voltage rating is used to protect the winding insulation
from breakdown.
• The apparent power rating sets (together with the voltage
rating) the current through the windings.
• The current determines the i2R losses and, therefore, the
heating of the coils. Remember, overheating shortens the life
of transformer’s insulation!
 Tx Rating Cont.
• The VA rating of an ideal transformer will be the
same on both primary and secondary.
• For real transformers, the VA rating for the primary
and secondary are so similar that we do not
distinguish between the two.
• Of the five (V1, V2, I1, I2, and VA) parallel quantities,
three are essential and the other two can be
calculated.
• Note that maximum flux is related to frequency as
the following equation depicts:
Vm
m 
N
 Referred Quantities
• Referring V, I and Z from one side of the transformer to the
other.
• The dash indicates that the quantity has been referred from
one side to the other: 2
' N1 ' N2 ' V 2' V 2 ( N 1 / N 2 ) N 
V  V1  V 2 .
2 , I 2  I1  I 2 . , Z2  '   Z 2  1 
N2 N1 I2 I 2 ( N 2 / N1 )  N2 
 Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

Req  R1  R2 N1 / N 2  , X eq  X 1  X 2 N1 / N 2  and Z eq  Req  jX eq

2 2

• The designer ensures that Req and Xeq are small.

• Io is small, Rm and Xm must be very large, i.e. »ZL.
• Rm must give a small value of iron loss while Xm has a very large inductance
to give a small value of reluctance S.
 Open Circuit Test

• All parameters are expressed in terms of quantities measured

in the open circuit .
 Short Circuit Test

• All parameters are expressed in terms of quantities measured in the

short circuit tests.
• Important Note : If the transformer is a step up transformer, its
primary is L.V. while secondary is H.V. winding.
• In a S.C. test, supply is given to the H.V. winding and L.V is shorted.
In such a case we connect meters on H.V. side which is
transformer secondary. In such a case the parameters calculated
from S.C. test readings are referred to secondary which are R2e, Z2e
and X2e.
• So, before doing calculations it is necessary to find out where the
readings are recorded on transformer primary or secondary and
accordingly the parameters are to be determined.
• In a step down transformer, primary is high voltage itself to which
supply is given in S.C. test. So in such a case test results give us
parameters referred to primary i.e. R1e, Z1e and X1e.
• Key point : In short, if meters are connected to primary of a
transformer in a S.C. test, calculations give us R1e and Z1e . If
meters are connected to secondary of a transformer in S.C. test
calculations give us R2e and Z2e.
 Voltage Regulation of a Transformer
• The voltage regulation is the percentage of voltage
difference between no-load and full load voltages of a
transformer with respect to its no-load voltage.
• Say an electrical power transformer is open circuited, this
means load is not connected with secondary terminals.
• In this situation the secondary terminal voltage of the
transformer will be its secondary induced emf E2.
• Whenever full load is connected to the secondary
terminals of the transformer, rated current I2 flows
through the secondary circuit and voltage drops come
into picture.
 Transformer Voltage Reg. Cont.
• In this situation, primary winding will also draw an
equivalent full load current from source.
• The voltage drop in the secondary is I2Z2 where Z2 is the
secondary impedance of transformer.
• If now, at this loading condition any one measures the
voltage between secondary terminals, he or she will
get voltage V2 across load terminals which is obviously
less than no load secondary voltage E2 and this is
because of I2Z2 voltage drop in the transformer.
• Expression of the Voltage Regulation of a Transformer,
represented in percentage, isE given
VR(%)  2
 V2 as follows:
 100%
E2
 Transformer Voltage Reg. Cont.
• A consumer requires constant voltage V, with no
variations.
• The supplier supplies constant V, but with
variations due to various loads.
• There is a compromise of ±7% in domestic
distribution, i.e. between 220 V and 240 V.
• Three solutions to keep voltage variations small
are: (1) increase supply voltage, (2) change
transformer tapping, and (3) series impedance
reasonably small.
 Transformer VR for lagging Power Factor
• Here, from the diagram,
OC = OA + AB + BC
• Here, OA = V2
AB = AEcosθ2 = I2R2cosθ2
and, BC = DEsinθ2 = I2X2sinθ2
• Angle between OC & OD may be
very small so it can be neglected
and OD is considered nearly equal
to OC i.e.
E2 = OC = OA + AB + BC
• E2 = OC = V2 + I2R2cosθ2 + I2X2sinθ2
E2  V2 I R cos 2  I 2 X 2 sin  2
Voltage regulation(%)   100%  2 2  100%
E2 E2
 Transformer VR for leading Power Factor
• Here, from the diagram,
OC = OA + AB − BC
• Here, OA = V2
AB = AEcosθ2 = I2R2cosθ2
and, BC = DEsinθ2 = I2X2sinθ2
• Angle between OC & OD may be
very small so it can be neglected
and OD is considered nearly equal
to OC i.e.
• E2 = OC = OA + AB − BC
E2 = OC = V2 + I2R2cosθ2 − I2X2sinθ2

E2  V2 I R cos 2  I 2 X 2 sin  2
Voltage regulation(%)  100%  2 2 100%
E2 E2
 Effect of Load Power Factor on Regulation
• For total equivalent reg  f ( I 2 )

circuit: I 2' Z eq
VR primary  cos( eq   2 )
V1
I 2 Z eq
VRsec ondary  cos( eq   2 )
V2 I2

• The graph on top shows

regulation as a function of
load current while the one
below shows it as a
function of power factor.
• The maximum value of regulation occurs when
θ2=θeq, i.e cos 0o=1.
I 2 Z eq
reg max 
V2
• Regulation at unit power factor (θ2=0o), i.e.
(cos0o=1) is:
I Z
• reg 
V
2
cos
eq
eq
2

• Zero regulation occurs when θeq-θ2=±90o or

θeq=θ2±90o
• Consider the power factors; e.g. θ2=60o, p.f.=0.5
lagging and θ2=-60o, p.f.=0.5 leading.
 Transformer Efficiency
• Core losses are caused by two factors:  hysteresis and eddy
current losses.
• Hysteresis loss is that energy lost by reversing the magnetic
field in the core as the magnetizing AC rises and falls and
reverses direction.
• Eddy current loss is a result of induced currents circulating in
the core.
 PCu  I 2'2 RT or I 22 RT sec
V12
PFe   CONSTANT
Ro
V2 I 2 cos 2 V2 I 2 cos 2
 
V2 I 2 cos 2  PCu  PFe V2 I 2 cos 2  I 22 RT sec  PFe

  f ( I 2 , 2 )
• Define I  x (FL=full load or rated value, S  V I ).
2
I 2 FL
r r r
• X gives the value of the full load constant.

V2 xI 2 FL cos 2 xS r cos  2
 
V2 xI 2 FL cos  2  x 2 I 22FL RT sec  PFe xS r cos  2  x 2 PCuFL  PFe
 Maximum Efficiency
1. Consider variable power factor for a specific full load
current:
xSr
 2
x PCuFL  PFe
xSr 
cos 2
• We need the denominator to be minimum for
maximum η, this occurs when cosθ2=maximum, i.e.
cosθ2=1 at unity power factor.
2. Consider variable load current:
S r cos  2
 
PFe
S r cos  2  xPCuFL 
x
• For maximum η, we need denominator to be
minimum:
d  PFe 
 S r cos 2  xPCuFL  0
dx  x 
PFe 2 PFe
0 2
 PCuFL  0,  x PCuFL  PFe ,  x 
x PCuFL
• The maximum η occurs when the variable
copper loss has the value of the constant iron
loss, i.e. PCu=PFe.
1
• For half full load x 
2 and for full load
x  1.
• The graph on top
here shows how
a 75 kVA
Transformer
losses vary with
load, whereas
the one below
shows how the
efficiency varies
with load.
Transformer Temperature rises
 PRACTICE QUESTIONS
1. (a) A 2200/200 V transformer draws a no-load primary current of
0.6 A and absorbs 400 watts. Find the magnetising and iron loss
currents.
(b) A 2200/250 V transformer takes 0.5 A at a p.f. of 0.3 on open
circuit. Find the magnetising and working components of no-load
primary current.
2. A single-phase transformer has 500 turns on the primary and 40
turns on the secondary windings. The mean length of the magnetic
path in the iron core is 150 cm and the joints are equivalent to an air
gap of 0.1 mm. When a p.d. of 3000 V is applied to the primary, the
maximum flux density is 1.2 Wb/m2. Calculate (a) the cross-sectional
area of the core, (b) no-load secondary voltage, (c) the no-load
current drawn by the primary, (d) power factor on no-load. It is given
that At/cm for a flux density of 1.2 Wb/m2 in iron is 5 and the
corresponding iron loss is 2 watt/kg at 50 Hz, the density of iron
being 7.8 g/cm3.
3. A 11000/230 V, 150 kVA, 1-phase, 50-Hz
transformer has core loss of 1.4 kW and full-load
copper loss of 1.6 kW. Determine
(a) the kVA load for maximum efficiency and value
of maximum efficiency at unity power factor.
(b) the efficiency at half full-load 0.8 power factor
leading.
4. A 600 kVA, 1-phase transformer has an efficiency
of 92% both at full-load and half-load at unity
power factor. Determine its efficiency at 60% of
full-load at 0.8 power factor lagging.
5. A12 kVA, 1,000/100 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer has the
following test results:
OC test (LV side): 100 V, 0.7 A, 85 W
SC test (HV side): 60 V, 10 A, 95 W
Determine the following:
(a) Core loss of the transformer.
(b) Equivalent resistance and leakage reactance referred to HV side.
(c) Equivalent resistance and leakage reactance referred to LV side.
(d) Regulation of the transformer at full load and half load at 0.8
power factor lagging.
(e) Transformer terminal voltage at full load at 0.8 power factor
lagging.
(f) Efficiency of the transformer at full load and half load at 0.8
power factor lagging.