Chapter-2: Introduction

solar power generation

Prepared by Viren Pandya

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Contents
Introduction to solar energy
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) Plant
Photovoltaic Conversion
Types of solar cell
Performance Characteristics of Solar Cell
Stand-alone and Grid-connected PV systems
Photovoltaic system applications

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Introduction to solar energy
Sun is a hot plasma star with a diameter of 13,90,000
km and its mean distance from earth is 1.46x108 km.
Solar constant is the amount of power that the sun
injects per unit area which is in direct exposure to
sunlight.
Solar constant value is 1368 W/m2.
Solar irradiance is the power per unit area received
from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation
in the wavelength of range of the measuring
instruments.
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Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) Plant
Two technologies are used in solar plants:
oPhotovoltaic (PV) systems
oConcentrated Solar Power (CSP)
Types of solar irradiance
oTotal solar irradiance (TSI)
oDirect Normal Irradiance (DNI)
oDiffuse horizontal irradiance (DHI) or Diffuse Sky
Radiation (DSR)
oGlobal Horizontal Irradiance (GHI)

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Total solar irradiance (TSI)
oMeasure of solar power over all wavelengths per unit area
incident on earth’s upper atmosphere.
oMeasured perpendicular to sunlight
oSolar constant is a conventional measure of mean TSI.
Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI)
oMeasured at earth surface at a given location with a
surface element perpendicular to the sun.
oNo diffused (scattered and reflected by atmospheric
elements) solar radiation is included.

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Diffuse horizontal irradiance (DHI) or Diffuse Sky
Radiation (DSR)
oRadiation on the earth’s surface from the light scattered by
the atmosphere.
oMeasured on a horizontal surface with radiation coming
from all the point in the excluding circumsolar radiation.
Global Horizontal Irradiance (GHI)
oTotal irradiance from the sun on the horizontal surface on
the earth.
oSum of direct irradiance and diffuse horizontal irradiance

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Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) Plant
Concentrated solar power (CSP) is an approach to
generating electricity through mirrors.
The mirrors reflect, concentrate and focus natural
sunlight onto a specific point, which is then
converted into heat.
The heat is then used to create steam, which drives
a turbine to generate electrical power.
The process can be repeated continuously because
CSP technology can store the heat produced.
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It can therefore be used on days where there is no
sun, or before sunrise and after sunset.
According to the International Energy
Agency (IEA), CSP generation increased by an
estimated 34% in 2019.
Although this exponential growth is impressive,
there’s still some way to go until CSP reaches
its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
which requires an average growth of 24% through
2030.
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CSP Working Principle
CSP technologies use a mirror configuration that
concentrates the sun’s solar energy onto a receiver,
which converts it to heat.
The heat is then converted into steam to drive a
turbine that produces electrical power.
CSP plants can use thermal energy storage systems
to store the power until it’s needed, for example
during periods of minimal sunlight.

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CSP Working Principle
The ability to store energy is what makes CSP a
flexible source of renewable energy.
CSP systems can also be combined with other
power sources to create hybrid power plants.
For example, CSP can be integrated with thermal-
fired power plants that use fuels like coal, natural
gas and biofuel.

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CSP Types
There are four types of CSP
technologies:
o Parabolic trough
systems – Through this system,
solar energy is concentrated by
curved, trough-shaped reflectors,
which are focused onto a receiver
pipe.
o The pipe usually contains thermal
oil, which is heated and then used in
the thermal power block to generate
electricity in a steam generator.
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CSP Types
Power tower systems –
oThese systems use mirrors
called heliostats that track
the sun and focus its
energy onto a receiver at
the top of a tower.
oA fluid (often, molten
salts) is heated inside the
receiver and is used to
generate steam, which
drives a turbine generator.

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CSP Types
Linear Fresnel systems – 
oA large number of collectors are set
out in rows.
oThe mirrors are laid flat on the ground
and reflect the sun on to the receiver
pipe above.
oSimilar to trough and tower systems,
Fresnel can integrate storage in a
power block or generate steam directly.

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CSP Types  Parabolic dish systems
 Parabolic dish geometry
concentrates light in a single focal
point, i.e., all sun rays that are
parallel to the axis of the parabola
are directed towards the central
receiver.
 This allows this type of collector
to achieve the highest
concentration ratios among all
other type of solar collectors.
 The dish concentrator must be
oriented towards the sun.
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CSP Types  Parabolic dish systems
 The engine that converts the
concentrated solar energy into
electricity is placed at the focal
point.
 This technology can be used for
both large-scale power plants
(with many dishes grouped in
arrays) and autonomous small-
scale power generation systems
that would provide power to off-
grid remote facilities.

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Photovoltaic Conversion
Solar Photovoltaic (PV) is a technology that
converts sunlight (solar radiation) into direct
current electricity using semiconductors.
When the sun hits the semiconductor within the PV
cell, electrons are freed and form an electric current.
Solar PV technology is generally employed on a
panel (hence solar panels).
PV cells are typically found connected to each other
and mounted on a frame called a module.
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Photovoltaic Conversion
Multiple modules can be wired together to form an
array, which can be scaled up or down to produce
the amount of power needed.
PV cells can be made from various semi-conductor
materials. The most commonly used material today
is silicon but other materials, such the ones listed
below, are being tested and used to increase the
efficiency of converting sunlight to electricity.

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A PV cell is made of semiconductor material. When photons
strike a PV cell, they may reflect off the cell, pass through
the cell, or be absorbed by the semiconductor material.
Only the absorbed photons provide energy to generate
electricity.
When the semiconductor material absorbs enough sunlight
(solar energy), electrons are dislodged from the material's
atoms.
Special treatment of the material surface during
manufacturing makes the front surface of the cell more
receptive to the dislodged, or free, electrons so that the
electrons naturally migrate to the surface of the cell.

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The movement of electrons, each carrying a
negative charge, toward the front surface of the cell
creates an imbalance of electrical charge between
the cell's front and back surfaces.
This imbalance, in turn, creates a voltage potential
like the negative and positive terminals of a battery.
 Electrical conductors on the cell absorb the
electrons.
When the conductors are connected in an electrical
circuit to an external load, such as a battery,
electricity flows in the circuit.
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Photovoltaic Conversion
Monocrystalline Silicon
Polycrystalline Silicon
Thin Film Solar Cells
oAmorphous Silicon
oCadmium Telluride (CdTe)
oCopper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS)
oOrganic PV cells

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Monocrystalline cells
Monocrystalline solar cells are made from single
crystalline silicon.
They are very distinctive in their appearance as they
are often coloured, and the cells hold a cylindrical
shape.
In order to keep the costs low and performance at
optimal levels, manufacturers cut out the four sides
of the monocrystalline cells.

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Monocrystalline cells
Advantages
oHighest level of efficiency at 15-20%
oNeed less space compared to other types
oLasts the longest, with most giving them a 25-year
warranty
oPerform better in low levels of sunlight, making them ideal
for cloudy areas
Disadvantages
oMost expensive solar cells on the market
oPerformance deteriorates at high temperature.
oLot of waste material when the silicon is cut.
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Polycrystalline Solar Cells
Frist introduced to the public in 1981.
Unlike the monocrystalline cells, polycrystalline
ones do not require each of the four sides to be cut.
 Instead, the silicon is melted and poured into
square moulds.
These then form perfectly shaped square cells.

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Polycrystalline Solar Cells
Advantages
o The manufacturing process is cheaper and easier than the
monocrystalline cells
o It avoids silicon waste
o High temperatures have less negative effects on efficiency compared
with monocrystalline cells. This makes the polycrystalline cells
more attractive to people in warmer areas as the price is lower
Disadvantages
o Efficiency is only around 13-16% due to low levels of silicon purity.
So they are not the most efficient on the market
o They have lower output rates which make them less space efficient.
So more roof space is needed for installation.

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Thin Film Solar Cells
Thin film solar cells are manufactured by placing
several thin layers of photovoltaic on top of each
other to creates the module.
There are actually a few different types of thin film
solar cell, and the way in which they differ from
each other comes down to the material used for the
PV layers.
Amorphous silicon
Cadmium telluride
Copper indium gallium selenide
Organic PV cells
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Thin Film Solar Cells
Depending on the technology that has been used,
the efficiency rates for thin film solar cells tends to
vary from 7% to 13%.
Since 2002, the knowledge levels and popularity
for thin film solar cells has risen dramatically,
which also means that research and development
have been increased.
Due to this, we can expect future models to hold
efficiency rates of 10-16%.

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Thin Film Solar Cells
Advantages
o They can be manufactured to be flexible, making them widely
applicable to a range of situations and building types
o Mass production is easy to achieve, making them potentially
cheaper to produce than crystalline solar cells
o Shading has a similar effect on their efficiency
Disadvantages
o Not ideal for domestic use as thy take up a lot of space
o Low space efficiency means that they will cause further
expenses in the form of enhancers, like cables of support
structures
o Shorter lifespan and so shorter warranty periods
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Performance Characteristics of Solar Cell
A solar cell is
nothing but a PN
junction.
 The plot of short-
circuit current
(ISC) and open-
circuit voltage
(VOC) describes
the performance of
the solar cell.
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Performance Characteristics of Solar Cell
nitially, the short-
circuit current
remains constant
with an increase
in voltage.
And a further
increase in voltage
results in a rapid
decrease in
current.
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Performance Characteristics of Solar Cell
The power developed by the solar cell is calculated by
multiplying current and voltage.
Panel should be operated at max power point and this
point is known as the Maximum Power Point (MPP).
Algorithm is used to track this point is known as
maximum power point tracking (MPPT).
The voltage at which the power is maximum is
considered as maximum voltage (Vm) and maximum
current (Im).
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Equivalent Circuit – Model of Solar Cell
Fill factor=VmIm/VocIoc
Ish=Source current
Ij=Junction current
I=Load current
RL=Load resistance I0 = Saturation current
V = Junction voltage
e = electron charge = 1.602×10-19 J/V
k = Boltzmann’s constant = 1.381×10-
Ish-Ij 23
 J/K
T = Temperature (K)

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Solar Cell Efficiency
The solar cells are a device that used to convert the
photon energy into electrical energy. The efficiency of
solar cells equates as below;

Factors affecting efficiency:

• Temperature
• Sun Intensity
• Solar Shading
• Reflection

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Types of Solar Power Plant
Standalone system
oThe stand system is an independent power plant. It is not
connected with a grid.
oIt is directly connected with the load.
oThis type of plant is used in a place where a grid is not
available like forest, hilly area etc.
oA battery and charge controller is an optional part of this
system.
oBut in most cases, the battery and charge controller is used
with this system to increase reliability.

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Standalone system
Advantages
oSimple
oLow maintenance
oUninterrupted power to the load

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Grid Connected PV System
A grid connected PV system is one where the
photovoltaic panels or array are connected to the
utility grid through a power inverter unit allowing
them to operate in parallel with the electric utility
grid.
Surplus energy generated during hot summer is fed
into grid by the consumer.
This extra or surplus electricity is can also be
stored in batteries.

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Grid Connected PV System

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Components
Inverter 
o The inverter is the most important part of any grid connected
system.
o The inverter extracts as much DC (direct current) electricity as
possible from the PV array and converts it into clean mains AC
(alternating current) electricity at the right voltage and frequency for
feeding into the grid or for supplying domestic loads.
Electricity Meter 
o The electricity meter also called a Kilowatt hour (kWh) meter is
used to record the flow of electricity to and from the grid.
o Bidirectional kWh meters can be used, one to indicate the electrical
energy being consumed and the other to record the solar electricity
being sent to the grid.
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Components
AC Breaker Panel and Fuses
oThe breaker panel or fuse box is the normal type of fuse
box provided with a domestic electricity supply and
installation with the exception of additional breakers for
inverter and/or filter connections.
With Battery bank
oThe battery charge controller, determines whether the
power generated by the solar panels is needed for home
use, to run low voltage equipment and lighting or whether
it will charge the backup batteries to be used later on.

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Advantages
oSimplicity
oRelatively low operating and maintenance cost
oLow electricity bill for consumers
oBatteries provides uninterrupted supply

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Photovoltaic system applications
Telecommunication
Small watches, calculators
Street lighting
Domestic – Rooftop for houses
Irrigation
Water supply
Military
Transportation – Solar based electric vehicles
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 Thanks
Any question/query?

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