Course Code: MSE 456

Materials Quality Control,

Assurance and Selection

Dr. Emmanuel Kwesi Arthur

Department of Materials Engineering,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology,
Kumasi, Ghana

Email: [email protected]
Phone #: +233541710532
1
©2022
 Goal and Objectives
Goals: This course is a required course in Metallurgical and Materials
Engineering. The major goal is to provide an introduction to materials
selection in relation to the design process. It also focuses on materials
quality control and assurance.
There are several objectives for this course:
1.) To introduce the parameters that are important to design, to understand
how they are interrelated, to understand how they relate to the materials
selection process, and to use these concepts in engineering design.
2.) To develop the ability to use modern software (CES EduPack) in the
materials selection and design process.
3.) To develop the ability to obtain materials property and processing data
needed in the materials selection and design process from both handbooks
and electronic sources.
4.) To provide an introduction to team-oriented projects that introduce basic
approaches to product design and materials selection
5.) To introduce the common material quality control and assurance methods
used in materials manufacturing industries.
 Resources:
 Text:
 “Materials: engineering, science, processing and design” by
M.F. Ashby, H.R. Shercliff and D. Cebon, Butterworth
Heinemann, Oxford 2007, Chapters 1 and 2
  “Materials Selection in Mechanical Design”, 4th edition by
M.F. Ashby, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, 2006, Chapters
1 - 3.

 Computer Software:
 CES EduPack 2013 Design Software (grantadesign.com). We
will be using this software for first part of this course. It
can be used as a materials database, a processing database,
and a materials selection tool. It will be installed on
students’ computers for practice.
 Syllabus:
 Attendance is your job – come to class!
Or our regularly scheduled time
(Tues. 1:00 pm - 3:00 pm & Thurs. 8:00 –
9:00 am)
 Homeworks
There will be homework in the form of problem sets and projects. The
projects will focus on materials selection and design and will frequently
include using the materials selection software, or library and web research.

The homework will typically be shorter assignments related to the

material being covered in lecture.
 Don’t copy from others; don’t plagiarize – its just the right thing to do!!
 Tutorials – by Paul Sarpong, Latif Abdulai and Joshua Alabi (TAs)
 Grading
Class Attendance, Pop Quizzes and Assignments – (5% of your
grade!)
Mid Semester Exams – (15%)
Group Project and Presentation (10%)
End of Semester Exams (70%)
 Homework: Homework problems will be uploaded on my website.
Each student will turn in homework to the TA one week after it
is assigned. On the day homework is due, students will be
randomly selected to solve selected homework problems,
explaining to the class how each problem is worked. Students are
encouraged to work together on homework. Students will be
evaluated on both the quality of their written answers and board
presentations.
 Design Presentation: The class will be divided evenly into groups
for a materials selection in design projects. Projects for each
group will be assigned by the lecturer. Each group will write a
report on their respective project, as well as make an oral
presentation to the class.
 Exams: Exams will be based on homework and information
provided in lecture, tutorials and assigned reading. All exams will
be closed book. The final will be cumulative. Relevant materials
selection charts, etc. will be provided.
Suggestions for success in this class:

1. Read the relevant material in the Ashby book (preferably before

the lecture topic)
2. Review and understand the examples given in the book.
3. Do the assigned homework. If you are having difficulty with a
particular concept, work additional problems given in the book on
that topic that have the answers given in the back of the book.
4. Seek help: tutors, etc.

Academic success is directly proportional to the amount of time

devoted to study.
Credits: 3 Credit Hours –Lecture

Prerequisite: No prerequisite, however, knowledge in strength of

materials and core materials courses is plus.

Office Hours:
I have an open door policy. If I am in my office, feel free to stop in
and ask questions about the class or any other materials questions you
may have. If you would like to meet at another time, please send me
an email with several available times.

Academic Dishonesty: In general, academic dishonesty will not be

tolerated. You will be practicing engineers in a few months. Integrity
and competence are critical to your professional success. Developing
bad habits in university will hinder your professional development and
will weaken the prestige of your degree.
 Design Stage
Unit Objective...
Introduce fundamental design concepts in
Materials Selection

You will learn about:

• design
• how structure dictates properties
• how processing can change structure

This unit will help you to:

• use materials properly
• realize new design opportunities with materials

8
 MATERIALS SELECTION

Introduction
 Materials selection is an important part of a larger process of
creating new solutions to problems. This larger process is called
““Engineering Design””
 Design of engineering components is limited by the available
materials, and new designs are made possible by new materials
 To see how important is the material selection in the design, consider
the definition of ““engineering”” used by ABET in the USA

According to Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology

(ABET), Engineering is the profession in which a knowledge of the
mathematical and natural sciences gained by study, experience, and
practice is applied with judgement to develop ways to utilise
economically the materials and forces of nature for the benefit of
mankind.
Materials Selection
Materials Selection
 Why Materials Selection

 An incorrectly chosen material may lead not

only to part failure, but also unnecessary
life-cycle cost.
 Selection of material is also related with
processing of material.
 Hence, the designer must seek for the best
combination of design-material-process.
 Functional Requirements
 For satisfying the need, designer must determine essential and desirable
features of the design.
 They are expressed in the form of “functional requirements” concerning
performance characteristics of materials (i.e. material properties).
 As it is impossible to satisfy all requirements to the same degree, they are
arranged in the order of importance to identify the areas of compromise.
 Design Limitations
 Furthermore, a design must be in compliance with inevitable “design
limitations”.
 Such requirements are expressed by means of 3M rule:
Manufacturing, Money, Maintenance
 Manufacturing requirements are logically the first to be considered.
Hence, the designer must consider functional merits of the material
as well as its , ability to be machined, shaped, formed, cast, welded,
and so on.
 Money (economic) requirements are based on the final product cost,
which is composed of raw material cost and production costs with
overheads. The cost of any product should be as high as the
customers can pay for it.
 Finally, maintenance (service life) requirements will define whether
replacement or repair is required. They depend upon size of the part,
extent of possible damage, facilities of the customers, and the
acceptable level of costs.
 Failure of Materials
 Failure happens when a design is no longer able to satisfy any of functional requirements.
 Failures not only cause costly damage, but also may lead to loss of lives as in airplane
crashes.
 In most design problems, primary concern is to minimize the possibility of a premature
failure in service. The service life can be in seconds (in case of space applications) or
many years (in case of bridges).
 Possible failure modes during service are as follows:
 Excessive deformation: yielding, buckling, stress rupture (creep)
 Fracture: sudden (brittle), fatigue (progressive), time dependent (creep)
 Inordinate wear: abrasion
 Deterioration: chemical (corrosion or oxidation), embrittlement (ductile to brittle
transition), irradiation, natural (fungus, other growths)
 In practice, it is impossible to predict failure mode of a part under severe service
conditions.
 Some failures happen soon after the part is in service, which are covered by a factor of
safety.
 However, time dependent failures are difficult or even impossible to avoid by applying
factor of safety. In such cases, parts are withdrawn from service and tested for
reliability. Such specific data are not found in general reference books.
Materials Selection
Classification of Engineering Materials
Machine Elements

18
Materials Selection
MATERIALS SELECTION
MATERIALS SELECTION IN DESIGN-
BASICS
Intro Lecture. Design Stage:

the first steps of optimised

selection
 The design process and material search space

Market need

Material & process needs All materials

Problem statement

Choice of material family Material search space

(metals, ceramics, polymers..) Concept Screen

Choice of material class Screen

(Steel, Al-alloy, Ni-alloy…..) Embodiment

Rank
Choice of single material
(Al-2040, Al-6061, Al-7075…..) Detail
Increasing
constraints
Final choice
Product specification
 Need – Concept -- Embodiment

Need Concepts

Embodiments

Direct pull Levered pull Geared pull Spring assisted pull

Embodiment -- Detail
 Methods of Material Selection

 The common methods of material selection are as follows:

1. Performance indices (including the use of Ashby charts)
2. Decision matrices
– Pugh selection method
– Weighted property index
3. Selection with Artificial Intelligence tools (i.e. Expert Systems)
4. Selection with Computer-Aided Databases
5. Value analysis
6. Failure analysis
7. Benefit-cost analysis
 We will be focusing on computer-Aided Databases, performance indices
and weighted property index.
 The decision-making strategy

Factual information Normative information

Material attributes Design requirements
Process attributes expressed as
including prompts for Constraints and
Intuitive estimation Objectives
Methodic information
Comparison engine
 Screening
 Ranking
 Documentation

Final selection
 Translation to create Normative information

Translation: “express design requirements as constraints”

Design requirements
A label

 Be strong enough
Function What does the component do ?  Conduct electricity
 Tolerate 250 oC
Constraints What essential conditions must it meet ?  Be able to be cast

What measure of performance is to  Cost

Objectives be maximized or minimized ?  Weight
 Volume

Free variables Which design variables are free ?  Eco-impact

Choice of
material
QUESTIONS
 Translation: a heat sink for power electronics

Power micro-chips get hot.

They have to be cooled to
prevent damage.

Design requirements Translation

Keep chips below 200 C Function Heat sink
without any electrical
coupling. Constraints 1. Max service temp > 200 C

2. “Good electrical insulator”

3. “Good thermal conductor”

(or T-conduction > 25 W/m.K)

Free variable Choice of material

 Screening using a LIMIT STAGE

Screening: “Eliminate materials that can’t do the job”

Browse Select Search Print Search web

1. Selection data
A Limit stage
Edu Level 2: Materials
Mechanical properties
2. Selection Stages
Thermal properties Min. Max
Graph Limit Tree
Maximum service temperature 200 C
Thermal conductivity 25 W/m.K
Specific heat J/kg.K
Results Ranking
X out of 95 pass Prop 1 Prop 2 Electrical properties

Material 1 2230 113 Electrical conductor Good conductor

Material 2 2100 300 or insulator? Poor conductor

Material 3 1950 5.6 Semiconductor

Poor insulator
Material 4 1876 47
Good insulator
etc...
 Screening using a GRAPH STAGE

File Edit View Select Tools

Browse Select Search Print Search web

Max service temp. (K)

1. Selection data WC

Edu Level 2: Materials Steel

Copper Alumina
CFRP
2000C
2. Selection Stages PEEK
Glass
PP GFRP
Graph Limit Tree Aluminum
PTFE
Zinc Fibreboard

Lead
Metals Polymers Ceramics Composites

1000

T-conductivity (W/m.s)
Ceramics
Results Ranking Metals
100
X out of 95 pass Prop 1 Prop 2

Material 1 2230 113 10

Polymers &
Composites elastomers
Material 2 2100 300
1
Material 3 1950 5.6
Material 4 1876 47 0.1
Foams
etc... Don’t need 0.01
numbers! 1 1010 1020 1030
Electrical resistivity (.cm)
 Screening using a TREE STAGE

Browse Select Search Print Search web

1. Selection data Tree stage for material

Edu Level 2: Materials
Ceramics Steels
2. Selection Stages Hybrids Al alloys
Graph Limit Tree Material
Metals Cu alloys

Polymers Ni alloys...

Results Tree stage for process

X out of 95 pass
Cast
Deform
Material 1 Join
Mold
Material 2 Process Composite
Shape
Material 3 Powder
Material 4 Surface Prototype
etc...
 Stacking selection stages

Browse Select Search Print Search web

1. Selection data Stacked stages

Edu Level 2: Materials Cast
Join Deform
Process Shape Mold
2. Selection Stages Composite
Graph Limit Tree Surface Powder
Prototype

Min Max

Density 2
Modulus 200
Results Ranking Strength 100
X out of 95 pass Prop 1 Prop 2 T-conduction
10
Material 1 2230 113
Material 2 2100 300 Property
Material 3 1950 5.6
Material 4 1876 47
etc...
 Translation: a CD case, an example of redesign

CD cases are made of polystyrene

(PS). They crack and scratch the
disks. Find a better material.

Design requirements Translation

 Injection-moldable Function CD enclosure

Contain and protect CD Constraints

better than the PS case. 1. Can be injection molded
2. Toughness K1c > that of PS
 As transparent as PS 3. Optically clear
4. Can be recycled
 Recylable

Free variable Choice of material

 The CD case: the whole story

Select Level 2: Materials

1 Tree stage: injection mold

Fracture toughness
Keep these!
Polystyrene

Translation 2

Function CD enclosure

Constraints
Optical properties
1. Can be injection molded
Transparency
 Optical quality

2. Toughness K1c > that of PS Transparent

3. Optically clear 3 Translucent

Eco properties Opaque
4. Can be recycled

Free variable Material Recycle 

 Documentation: the pedigree

Documentation: “now that the number of candidates is small, explore their

character in depth”
Trade Suppliers’ Material
Handbooks associations data sheets portals

Documentation:
the “pedigree” of surviving candidates

 Granta’s Web Portal (http://matdata.net) gives

indexed access to information providers’ web sites.
 Documentation with CES

Browse Select Search Print Search web

1. Selection data
Matdata.net
Edu Level 2: Materials Searches information sources
for selected record
2. Selection Stages
Graph Limit Tree
Age hardening ALUMINUM ALLOYS

The material
The high-strength aluminum alloys rely
on age-hardening: a sequence of heat

Results treatment steps that causes the precipitation

of a nano-scale dispersion of intermetallics
that impede dislocation motion and impart strength.
X out of 94 pass
General properties
Open the record Density 2500 - 2900 kg/m^3
Material 1 Price 1.423 - 2.305 USD/kg

Material 2 Mechanical properties

Young's modulus 68 - 80 GPa
Material 3 Elastic limit 95 - 610 MPa
Tensile strength 180 - 620 MPa
Material 4 Elongation 1 - 20 %
Hardness - Vickers 60 - 160 HV
Material 5 Fatigue strength at 107 cycles 57 - 210 MPa
Fracture toughness
……….. 21 - 35 MPa.m^1/2

Thermal properties
Thermal conductor or insulator? Good conductor
Thermal conductivity 118 - 174 W/m.K
 The main points

The four steps of selection:

1. Translation, giving constraints and objectives
2. Screening , using constraints
3. Ranking, using objectives These are
often enough !

4. Documentation in CES, and http://matdata.net

CES allows Screening using

• Limit stages,
• Graph stages
• Tree stages and
• All three in any number and sequence
Pause for demo
 Exercise: Stage 1, a tree stage

3.1 A material is required for a molded electrical

enclosure that may be used outdoors. There are
requirements on
 Processing (this Stage)
 Properties (Stage 2)
 Price (Stage 3)

Apply Stage 1 – a Tree Stage

 Tree stage
 ProcessUniverse
 Shaping
 Molding -- Insert
 OK

Now add Stage 2 – next page

 Exercise: Stage 2, a limit stage

3.2 The material of the enclosure must have

 Hardness - Vickers > 8 HV Browse Select Search
 Be a good electrical insulator
 Have dielectric strength > 10 MV/m 1. Selection data
 Be able to be recycled Edu
Edu Level
Level2:
2: Materials
Materials

2. Selection Stages
Graph Limit Tree
Mechanical properties
Hardness - Vickers 8 HV

Electrical properties Enter

limits
Conductor or insulator? Good conductor

Poor conductor

Poor insulator

Good insulator

Dielectric strength 10 MV/m

Eco properties
Recycle

Now add Stage 3 – next page

 Exercise: Stage 3, a graph stage

3.3 The material of the enclosure should be as cheap Browse Select Search
as possible. Find the four materials meeting all the
previous constraints that have the lowest price per kg. 1. Selection data
Edu
Edu Level
Level2:
2: Materials
Materials
 Graph stage – Y-axis – Price
 Hide all materials failing previous stages 2. Selection Stages
 Rank the final Results list by Price Graph Limit Tree

Choose
Y-axis
3. Results: 15 of 95 pass
Name Price (USD/kg)
Polypropylene (PP) 1.41 - 1.62
Soda-lime glass 1.41 - 1.659
Polystyrene (PS) 1.476 - 1.574
Polyvinylchloride (tpPVC) 1.6 - 2.2
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 1.608 - 1.769
Polyethylene (PE) 1.718 - 1.89
Polyoxymethylene (Acetal, POM) 2.203 - 2.732
Polymethyl methacrylate 2.335 - 2.569
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) 2.511 - 2.952
Polyamides (Nylons, PA) 3.194 - 3.569
Polycarbonate (PC) 3.6 - 4.47
Polylactide (PLA) 3.667 - 4.584
Polyurethane (tpPUR) 3.723 - 4.45
Cellulose polymers (CA) 3.921 - 4.313
Polyetheretherketone (PEEK) 99.14 - 109
 Assignment 1
1) What is meant by the design-limiting properties of a material in a
given application?
2) There have been many attempts to manufacture and market plastic
bicycles. All have been too flexible. Which design-limiting property is
insufficiently large?
3) What, in your judgement, are the design-limiting properties for the
material for the blade of a knife that will be used to cut fish?
4) What, in your judgement, are the design-limiting properties for the
material of an oven glove?
5) What, in your judgement, are the design-limiting properties for the
material of an electric lamp filament?
6) A material is needed for a tube to carry fuel from the fuel tank to
the carburetor of a motor mower. The design requires that the tube
can bend and that the fuel be visible. List what you would think to be
the design-limiting properties.
 Assignment 1

7) A material is required as the magnet for a magnetic soap holder. Soap

is mildly alkaline. List what you would judge to be the design-limiting
properties.
8) List three applications that, in your judgement, need high stiffness
and low weight.
10) List three applications that, in your judgement, need optical quality
glass.
 Exercise 1
Exploring design using CES

1) Designers need to be able to find data quickly and reliably. That is where
the classifications come in. The CES system uses the classification scheme
described in this unit. Before trying these exercises, open the Materials
Universe in CES and explore it. The opening screen offers options—take
the Edu Level 2: Materials.
2) Use the ‘Browse’ facility in Level 2 of the CES Software to find the record
for Copper. What is its thermal conductivity? What is its price?
3) Use the ‘Browse’ facility in Level 2 of the CES Software to find the record
for the thermosetting polymer Phenolic. Are they cheaper or more
expensive than Epoxies?
4) Use the ‘Browse’ facility to find records for the polymer-shaping
processes Rotational molding. What, typically, is it used to make?
5) Use the ‘Search’ facility to find out what Plexiglas is. Do the same for
Pyroceram.
6) Use the ‘Search’ facility to find out about the process Pultrusion. Do the
same for TIG welding. Remember that you need to search the Process
Universe, not the Material Universe.
End of Unit 3
Lecture 4. Ranking:

refining the choice

 Outline

 Selection has 4 basic steps

Step 1 Translation: express design requirements as constraints

and objectives Unit 3
Step 2 Screening: eliminate materials that cannot do the job

Step 3 Ranking: find the materials that do the job best This
Unit
Step 4 Documentation: explore pedigrees of top-ranked Unit 3
candidates

 Exercises

More info:
• “Materials: engineering, science, processing and design”, Chapter 3, 4 and
6

• “Materials Selection in Mechanical Design”, Chapters 5 and 6

 Analysis of design requirements

Express design requirements as constraints and objectives

Bike frame Design requirements

A label

Must be
 Stiff enough
Function What does the
 Strong enough
component do ?
 Tough enough
Constraints What essential  Able to be welded
conditions must be met ?

What is the criterion Minimize

Objectives
of excellence ?  Cost
 Weight
What can be varied
Free variable  Volume
?
 Eco-impact

Choice of
material
Common constraints and objectives
 Case Study – Material Selection

 Problem: Select suitable material for

bicycle frame and fork.

Carbon fiber
Steel and Aluminum Ti and Mg
Wood Reinforced
alloys alloys alloys
plastic

Low cost but Light and Very light and Light, moderately Slightly better
Heavy. Less strong. But strong. No Strong. Corrosion Than Al
Corrosion Cannot be corrosion. Resistance. alloys. But much
resistance shaped Very expensive expensive expensive

Cost important? Select steel

Properties important? Select CFRP
 The CD case, with an objective

Translation

Function CD enclosure

Constraints
Design requirements 1. Can be injection molded

 Injection-moldable 2. Optically clear

3. Toughness K1c > that of PS
Contain and protect CD
better than the PS case. 4. Can be recycled
 As transparent as PS Minimise material cost
OBJECTIVE
 Eco-friendly
Free variable Choice of material
 As cheap as possible
 Screening and ranking: the CD case

Select Level 2: Materials

OBJECTIVE Minimise material cost C
1 Tree stage: injection mold Volume of material in case, V, fixed
Density , cost per unit mass Cm
Fracture toughness

Keep these!
Polystyrene Material cost/case C = V Cm 
2 Rank on this index

Surviving materials
Polycarbonate
Cost metric Cm 
Optical properties Cellulose acetate

 Optical quality 3
PMMA
Transparency Transparent
2
3 Translucent 1 Polystyrene

Opaque Ranking

Eco properties
Recycle

 Advanced ranking: modelling performance

The method:

1. Identify function, constraints, objective and free variables

(list simple constraints for screening).

2. Write down equation for objective -- the “performance equation”.

If the performance equation involves a free variable (other than

the material):
 Identify the constraint that limits it.
 Use this to eliminate the free variable in performance equation.

3. Read off the combination of material properties that

maximises performance -- the material index

4. Use this for ranking

Selection Procedure
 Example 1: strong, light tie-rod

Strong tie of length L and minimum mass

Function Tie-rod F F
Area A L

Constraints • Length L is specified

m = mass
• Must not fail under load F
A = area
Equation for constraint on A: L = length
F/A < y (1)  = density
 y= yield strength
Objective Minimize mass m:
m = AL (2)

Free variables • Material choice

Eliminate A in (2) using (1):
• Section area A.

Performance     ρ 
mFL   Chose materials with smallest 
metric m  y 
 



σ y 
(or maximize σ y / ρ )
Demo
 The chart-management tool bar

Zoom Un-zoom
Add
Add text
envelopes
Cancel Black and white
selection chart
Box selection Grey failed
tool materials

Line selection Hide failed

tool materials
 Exercise: selecting light, strong materials (1)

4.1 The material index for selecting Browse Select Search

light strong materials is
M = y /  1. Selection data
where  y is the yield strength and  Edu
Edu Level
Level2:
2: Materials
Materials
the density. 2. Selection Stages
Make a Graph stage with these two
Graph Limit Tree
properties as axes
 Impose a selection line (slope 1)
Min Max
to find materials with the highest y Density
High

Strength  y
values of M.  Modulus

 Add a Limit stage to impose the Strength

1
Elongation 10
additional constraint: etc
Elongation > 10%
Density 

Results:
 Age-hardening wrought Al-alloys
 Nickel-based superalloys
 Titanium alloys
 Wrought magnesium alloys
 Exercise: selecting light, strong materials (2)

4.2 Repeat the selection of 4.1, but use the Browse Select Search
Advanced facility to make a bar-chart with
the index
1. Selection data
M = y / 
Edu
Edu Level
Level2:
2: Materials
Materials
on the Y-axis.
 Impose a Box selection to find materials 2. Selection Stages
with the highest values of M.
Graph Limit Tree

y
High Yield strength / Density
Min Max

Index y /

Density Modulus
Strength
+ - / * ^ ( )
Elongation 10
List of properties
etc
 Density
 Modulus
 Yield strength
 etc
 Add a Limit stage to impose the additional
constraint:
Elongation > 10%
 Exercise: selecting materials for springs (1)

4.3 A material is required for a spring that may be

exposed to shock loading, and must operate in Browse Select Search
fresh and salt water.
Constraints: 1. Selection data
 Fracture toughness > 15 MPa.m1/2 Edu
Edu Level
Level2:
2: Materials
Materials
 Very good durability in fresh and salt water
Objective: 2. Selection Stages
 Maximise stored elastic energy
Graph Limit Tree

The best materials for

Min Max
springs are those with the  2y Density
Stress

High
greatest value of y

Strength  y
E Fr. toughness 15
the index Elastic energy
 2y
etc
2 0.5
1 1 y Fresh water v. good
E y y  Salt water v. good
2 2 E

Strain  Modulus E
Make a graph with
 Young’s modulus E on the X-axis
 Yield strength  y on the Y-axis
 Put on a line of slope 0.5 (corresponding to power 2)
 Select materials above the line
 Add the other constraints using a limit stage
 Exercise: selecting materials for springs (2)

4.4 Repeat the selection of 4.3, but use the

Advanced facility to make a bar-chart with Browse Select Search
the index
 2y / E
on the Y-axis. 1. Selection data
Edu
Edu Level
Level2:
2: Materials
Materials
.Plot the bar chart
 Use a box selection to select the materials
with high values of the index 2. Selection Stages
Graph Limit Tree
 2y
High
Index y2 /E

E Min Max
(Yield strength^2)/ Density
Young’s modulus Fr. toughness 15
etc
+ - / * ^ ( )
Fresh water v. good
List of properties v. good
Salt water
 Density
 Modulus
 Yield strength
 Add the other constraints using a limit stage  etc

Results:
 CFRP, epoxy matrix (isotropic)
 Nickel-based superalloys
 Titanium alloys
 Quiz 3

1. Use the modulus–density chart to find, from among the

materials that appear on it:
(a) The material with the highest density.
(b) The metal with the lowest modulus.
(c) The polymer with the highest density.
(d) The approximate ratio of the modulus of woods
measured parallel to the grain and perpendicular to the
grain.
(e) The approximate range of modulus of elastomers.
Quiz 3
 Exercise 2
1) Make an E–ρ chart using the CES software. Use a box
selection to find three materials with densities between
1000 and 3000 kg/m3 and the highest possible modulus.
2) Data estimation. The modulus E is approximately
proportional to the melting point Tm in Kelvin (because
strong inter-atomic bonds give both stiffness and
resistance to thermal disruption). Use CES to make
an E–Tm chart for metals and estimate a line of slope 1
through the data for materials. Use this line to estimate
the modulus of cobalt, given that it has a melting point of
1760 K.
3) Sanity checks for data. A text reports that nickel,
with a melting point of 1720 K, has a modulus of 5500
GPa. Use the E–Tm correlation of the previous question to
check the sanity of this claim. What would you expect it
 Exercise 3

1) Explore the potential of PP–SiC (polypropylene–silicon

carbide) fiber composites in the following way. Make
a modulus–density (E–ρ) chart and change the axis
ranges so that they span the range 1 < E <1000 GPa and
500 < ρ < 5000 kg/m3 . Find and label PP and SiC, then
print it. Retrieve values for the modulus and density of
PP and of SiC from the records for these materials
(use the means of the ranges).
2) Use a ‘Limit’ stage to find materials with modulus E >
180 GPa and price Cm < 3 $/kg.
3) Use a ‘Limit’ stage to find materials with modulus
E > 2 GPa, density ρ < 1000 kg/m3 and Price < 3/kg.
 Exercise 4

1) Make a bar chart of modulus, E. Add a tree stage to limit the

selection to polymers alone. Which three polymers have the
highest modulus?
2) Make a chart showing modulus E and density ρ. Apply a selection
line of slope 1, corresponding to the index E/ρ positioning the line
such that six materials are left above it. Which are they and what
families do they belong to?
3) A material is required for a tensile tie to link the front and back
walls of a barn to stabilize both. It must meet a constraint on
stiffness and be as cheap as possible. To be safe the material of
the tie must have a fracture toughness K1c > 18 MPa.m1/2. The
relevant index is
 Assignment 2

1) Construct a chart of E plotted against Cm ρ. Add the

constraint of adequate fracture toughness, meaning
K1c > 18 MPa.m1/2, using a ‘Limit’ stage. Then plot an
appropriate selection line on the chart and report
the three materials that are the best choices for
the tie.
Example 2: Stiff & Light Tension Members
Example 2: Stiff & Light Tension Members
 Assignment 3
1) List the six main classes of engineering materials. Use your own
experience to rank them approximately:`
(a) By stiffness (modulus, E).
(b) By thermal conductivity (λ).
1) What are the steps in developing an original design?
2) Describe and illustrate the ‘translation’ step of the material
selection strategy.
3) What is meant by an objective and what by a constraint in the
requirements for a design? How do they differ?
4) You are asked to design a fuel-saving cooking pan with the goal of
wasting as little heat as possible while cooking. What objective
would you choose, and what constraints would you think must be
met?
 Assignment 4

Bikes come in many forms, each aimed at a particular sector of the market:

a) Sprint bikes.
b) Touring bikes.
c) Mountain bikes.
d) Shopping bikes.
e) Children’s bikes.
f) Folding bikes.

Use your judgement to identify the primary objective and the

constraints that must be met for each of these.
 Quiz 4

Examine the material property chart of modulus versus density.

By what factor are polymers less stiff than metals? Is wood
denser or less dense than polyethylene (PE)?
 Example 3: Cheap Stiff Column

 A column supports compressive

loads e.g. legs of a table or pillars
 The goal is to identify the cheapest
materials that will support the load
without failing

77
 Cheap Stiff Column
 The objective function is cost
 The buckling constraint is given by (safe design)

 Notingthat I = r4/4 = A2/4 and eliminating the variable

A gives

 Thematerial index for a low cost column that resists

buckling is
Performance of Stiff but Cost Effective Column

Slope=2
 Quiz 5

1) Use the modulus–relative cost chart to find, from among

the materials that appear on it:
(a) The cheapest material with a modulus greater than
1 GPa.
(b) The cheapest metal.
(c) The cheapest polymer.
(d) Whether magnesium alloys are more or less expensive
than aluminum alloys.
(e) Whether PEEK (a high-performance engineering
polymer) is more or less expensive than PTFE.
Quiz 5
 Assignment 5
Pick any three engineering applications and answer the
following:

1. Determine required properties: ex: mechanical,

electrical, thermal,
magnetic, optical, deteriorative.
 
2. Express the design requirements into functions and
objectives.
 
3. Properties: identify candidate materials
 
4. Material: identify required Processing
Processing: changes structure and overall shape
ex: casting, sintering, vapor deposition, doping
forming, joining, annealing.
QUESTIONS
 Example 4: Selecting a Slender but strong Table Leg
Elizabeth Laryea, a furniture designer, conceives of a lightweight table of
simplicity, with a flat toughened glass top on slender, unbraced, cylindrical legs.
For attractiveness, legs must be solid [to be thin] and light as possible [to make
table easy to move]. Legs must support table top and load without buckling.

What material would you recommend to Elizabeth?

I = r4/4

A light-weight table with slender cylindrical legs. Lightness and

slenderness are independent design goals, both constrained by the
requirement that the legs must not buckle when the table is loaded.
Example 4: (cont)
Polymers are out: they are not stiff enough; metals too: they are too heavy (even magnesium alloys, which are the
lightest).
 The Selection

 The choice is further narrowed by the requirement that, for slenderness, E must be
large. A horizontal line on the diagram links materials with equal values of E; those
above are stiffer. Placing this line at M 1=100 GPa eliminates woods and GFRP. If the legs
must be really thin, then the short-list is reduced to CFRP and ceramics: they give legs
that weigh the same as the wooden ones but are barely half as thick.
 Ceramics, we know, are brittle: they have low values of fracture toughness.

 Table legs are exposed to abuse—they get knocked and kicked; common
sense suggest that an additional constraint is needed, that of adequate
toughness.
 We then eliminate ceramics, leaving CFRP.
 The cost of CFRP may cause Elizabeth to reconsider her design, but that
is another matter: she did not mention cost in her original specification.
 Quiz 6

1) What is meant by a material index?

2) Derive a material index for a light and stiff panel
with a square cross section.
3) Plot the index for a light, stiff panel on a copy of
the modulus–density chart, positioning the line
such that six materials are left above it. What
classes do they belong to?
 Assignment 6

1) The speed of longitudinal waves in a material is proportional to sqrt

[E/ρ]. Plot contours of this quantity onto a copy of an E–ρ chart
allowing you to read off approximate values for any material on the
chart. Which metals have about the same sound velocity as steel?
Does sound move faster in titanium or glass?
2) A material is required for a cheap column with a solid circular cross-
section that must support a load Fcrit without buckling. It is to have a
height L. Write down an equation for the material cost of the column
in terms of its dimensions, the price per kg of the material, Cm , and
the material density ρ. The cross-section area A is a free variable—
eliminate it by using the constraint that the buckling load must not be
less than Fcrit (equation (5)). Hence read off the index for finding
the cheapest tie. Plot the index on a copy of the appropriate chart
and identify three possible candidates.
 Example 5: stiff, light beam
Stiff beam of length L and minimum mass
Function Beam
Square
b section,
area
L A = b2
• Length L is specified
Constraints
• Must have bending stiffness > S* m = mass
A = area
Equation for constraint on A:
L = length
CEI CE A2  = density
S 3
 3 (1) E = Young’s modulus
L 12 L
I = second moment of area
Objective Minimize mass m: (I = b4/12 = A2/12)
C = constant (here, 48)
m = AL (2)

Free variables • Material choice

• Section area A. Eliminate A in (2) using (1):

1/ 2
Performance  12 L5 S*     Chose materials  ρ 
m   1/ 2   1/2 
metric m  C  E  with smallest
  E 
 Optimized selection using charts


1/ 2
C
Light stiff beam: E
ρ 1000
Index M 
E1/2 Ceramics

Young’s modulus E, (GPa)

100 Decreasing M
Composites
Rearrange:
E  ρ2 / M2 Woods
10
Take logs:
Metals
Log E = 2 log  - 2 log M 1 Slope 2
2
Polymers
0.1
Contours of constant
M are lines of slope 2 Foams Elastomers
on an E- chart 0.01
0.1 1 10 100
Density (Mg/m )
3
 Optimized selection using charts


C
E1/ 2
Example 5: STRONG & LIGHT TORSION MEMBERS

Mt • Bar must carry a moment, Mt ;

must have a length L.
L  -- Strength relation: -- Mass of bar:
 f 2Mt
  M  R2 L
N R 3

• Eliminate the "free" design parameter, R:

2R
2 /3 

M  2  NMt L 
2f / 3
specified by application minimize for small M

2f / 3
• Maximize the Performance Index: P
(strong, light torsion members) 
6
Example 5: Torsionally stressed shaft
Example 5: Torsionally stressed shaft
Example 5: Torsionally stressed shaft
Other Material Indices: Cost factor
 Material “indices”

Function has a
Each combination of Constraint characterising
Objective material index
FUNCTION Free variable
Tie
CONSTRAINTS
Minimise this!
Beam
Stiffness OBJECTIVE
specified
Minimum cost
Shaft INDEX
Strength
specified Minimum
  
Column weight M   1/ 2 
Fatigue limit E 
Minimum
Geometry volume
specified
Mechanical,
Minimum
Thermal,
eco- impact
Electrical...
 Demystifying material indices
 A material index is just the combination of material properties that
appears in the equation for performance (eg minimizing mass or cost).

 Sometimes a single property

Either is a material index
 Sometimes a combination
Constraints
Example: Function Stiffness Strength
Tension (tie)
Objective -- ρ/E ρ/σ y
minimise mass
Bending (beam)
Performance
ρ/E1/2 ρ/σ 2/3
metric = mass y
Bending (panel)
ρ/E1/3 ρ/σ1/2
y

(Or maximize
Minimize these! reciprocals)
Summary of Some Materials Indices
 Assignment

Selecting a beam material for minimum cost

 A simply supported beam of rectangular cross section of

length 1 meter, width 100 mm, and no restriction on the
depth is subjected to a load of 20 kN in its middle. The main
design requirement is that the beam should not suffer
plastic deformation as a result of load application. Select the
least expensive material for the beam
 Single Property Ranking Example
Overhead Transmission Cable
 Single Property Ranking Example

Overhead Transmission Cable

Overhead Transmission Cable
End of Unit 4
WEIGHTED
PROPERTY
INDEX
 Weighted Property Method
 In most applications, the selected material should
satisfy more than one functional requirements
 In this method each material requirement (or
property) is assigned a certain weight (which depends
on its importance to the performance of the design)

 This method attempts to:

1. Quantify how important each desired requirement
is by determining a weighting factor (α)
2. Quantify how well a candidate material satisfies
each requirement by determining a scaling factor (β)
MATERIALS
Since different properties have widely different numerical values.
Each property must be so scaled that the largest value does not
exceed 100
1
1
1

Weighted Properties Method

1
1
2

Scaled Factor
 For properties that should have maximum values [strength, toughness …],
the scaling factor [β] for a given candidate material is

For properties such that it is more desirable to have low values, e.g.,
density, corrosion loss, cost and electrical resistance, the scale
factor is formulated as follows

 The relative importance is shown by using a point scale that does

not exceed 100 points
 e.g; if strength is 4 times as important as cost, it will be
represented by an 80 / 20 division
 For properties that are not readily expressed in numerical
values, e.g., weldability and wear resistance, some kind of
subjective rating is required. For example

 The best material may either have the largest value of the given
property or the smallest
 For example-
 High strength is given 100
 Low density or low corrosion rates are given 100

113
1
1
4

Weighted Property Index

 It is calculated by multiplying the scaling factor by the weight
factor. Then the summed for the criteria

 The material performance index γ is

where i is summed over all the properties, and n is the number of properties
under consideration
1
1
5

There are two general schemes for working with

the weighting factors

The other is to
The most let w take on a
common one is range of values,
with the largest
to set
value denoting
such that the property of
greatest
importance
1
1
6

Weighted Point Method

 Step 1- List all the essential and desirable properties of the
material. Eg. Availability, shape and size, cost, corrosion
resistance, weldability, forgibility, density, etc.

 Step 2- Categorize these properties into two groups. a] Go-

No-Go parameters- are constraints, b] Discriminating
parameters- can be assigned values. For example, in the case of
connecting rod endurance strength is given number 5 and cost
is given number 1. Here in weightage point method, #1 means
poor weightage and #5 means high priority.

 Step 3- The quantitative values or weightage depends upon

the importance of that particular property in the given
application

 Step 4- Calculation of weightage contribution and decision

making
1
1
7

Weighting factors- Example

Density is 4 times as important as strength, strength is 4 times as
important as cost, corrosion is 2 /3 as important as strength, Strength
is as important as colour. colour is ¼ as important as density.
Weighting of attributes

We can also use the Digital Logic Method

 Digital Logic Approach
 When many material properties are used to specify
performance, it may be difficult to establish the
weighting factors
 One way to do so is to use a digital logic approach
 Each property is listed and is compared in every
combination, taken two at a time to make the comparison
 The property that is considered to be the more
important of the two is given a 1 and the less important
property is given a 0

118
 The total number of
possible combinations is

119
 where n is the number of
properties under consideration

 If the total number of possible decisions for

each property is m, then:
1
2
0

 The number of attributes that should be listed vary between 5 - 10

 This method combine properties with different units. This
limitation is overcome by the use of a “scaling factor”
 The relative merit of each property of the candidate material may
be incorporated by assigning the value of 100 (%) to the best
material in that property category
1
2

Example
1

 Select a suitable material by weighted point method. There are four

materials selected on the basis of design requirement which are i] stainless
steel 301, ii] aluminium 2014-T6, iii] Ti-6Al-4V and iv] Inconel 718. The
material is to be used for a cryogenic storage tank for transporting liquid
nitrogen at -196oC.
Mechanical Properties

 On the basis of importance of these properties they are ranked on the

scale of 1 to 5 [1 stands for the poorest and 5 for the best].
 As the tank is to be used in -198 oC, toughness should be at the top and
to reduce the weight, density has to be assigned to the second place.
Hence, toughness is assigned 5 points, density 4 points and so on. These
are listed below-
1
2
2

Assignment of Weighted Index

 The calculation of percentage contribution of each property is illustrated

below.
 The percentage contribution of toughness of Al-2024-T6 is obtained as

 Since weight index for toughness is 5, the material performance index for
Al-2024-T6 is

 Similarly, material performance index for other materials are obtained and
included in Table below
1
2
3

Summary of Calculations
1
2
4

Properties of Sample Candidate Materials

Use of Digital Logic Method in the Cylinder Example

1
2
5

Weighted Factors for the Cylinder Example

1
2
6

Scaled Values of Properties and Calculated

Weighted Property Index

Calculation of Performance Index Property

1
2
7

Class Test

The material selection for a cryogenic storage

vessel for liquefied propane gas is being
evaluated on the basis of
1) low-temperature fracture toughness, 2) elastic
modulus, 3) specific gravity,
4) thermal expansion and 5) yield strength.

Determine the weighting factors for these

properties with the aid of a digital logic table.
 Class Test
The material selection for a cryogenic storage vessel for
liquefied propane gas is being evaluated on the basis of
1)low-temperature fracture toughness, 2) elastic modulus,
3) specific gravity, 4) thermal expansion and 5) yield
strength.

Determine the weighting factors for these properties with

the aid of a digital logic table. Select the best material
from the following candidate materials
 Materials Quality Control and
Assurance

131
 Contents

 Concepts of quality control

 Objectives of quality control
 Consequences of quality control
 Costs associated with quality control
 The economics of quality control
 Control chats; types of control chats
 Inspection of finished products and the economics of quality
control
 Materials Quality Control

 Questions to answer in this module…

 Why is Quality Control important in materials

manufacturing?
 What can go wrong in quality control?
 How are materials quality controlled?
What does the word “quality” mean to you?

 Thinkabout a product you bought. How can you

define its “quality”?
 Terminology

 Every product possesses a number of elements that jointly describe

what the user or consumer thinks of as quality

 These parameters are often called quality characteristics

 Sometimes these are called critical-to-quality [CTQ] characteristics

 Quality characteristics may be of several types

o Physical- length, weight, viscosity

o Sensory- taste, appearance, color

o Time Orientation- reliability, durability, serviceability

135
 Dimensions of Quality

 Garvin (1987)
1. Performance:
 Will the product do the intended job?
2. Reliability:
 How often does the product fail?
3. Durability:
 How long does the product last?
4. Serviceability:
 How easy to repair the product to solve the
problems in service?
 Dimensions of Quality

5. Aesthetics:
 What does the product look/smell/sound/ feel like?
6. Features:
 What does the product do/ service give?
7. Perceived Quality:
 What is the reputation of the company or its
products/services?
8. Conformance to Standards:
 Is the product/service made exactly as the
designer/standard intended?
 What is Quality?

 “The degree to which a system, component, or process

meets
(1) specified requirements, and
(2) customer or users needs or expectations” – IEEE

 Degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfils

requirements – ISO 9000:2000

The word Quality does not mean the Quality of

manufactured product only. It may refer to the
Quality of the process (i.e., men, material,
machines) and even that of management.
 What is Quality?

 Quality means those features of products which meet

customer needs and thereby provide customer
satisfaction.
 In this sense, the meaning of quality is oriented to
income
 The purpose of such higher quality is to provide
greater customer satisfaction and one hopes to
increase income
 Quality means freedom from deficiencies
 In this sense, the meaning of quality is oriented to
costs, and higher quality usually costs less
 More about Quality

 Quality begins with the design of a product in accordance with the

customer specification.
 Further it involves the established measurement standards, the
use of proper material, selection of suitable manufacturing process
and the necessary tooling to manufacture the product. It also
involve the performance of the necessary manufacturing operations
and the inspection of the product to check the manufacturing
operations and the inspection of the product to check on
performance with the specifications.
 Quality characteristics can be classified as follows :

(1) Quality of design

(2) Quality of conformance with specifications

(3) Quality of performance.

 Modern Importance of Quality

 “Thefirst job we have is to turn out quality

merchandise that consumers will buy and keep on
buying. If we produce it efficiently and
economically, we will earn a profit.”
- William Cooper Procter

141
 Factors Affecting Quality

(1) Men, Materials and Machines

(2) Manufacturing conditions
(3) Market research in demand of purchases
(4) Money in capability to invest
(5) Management policy for quality level
(6) Production methods and product design
(7) Packing and transportation
 What is Quality Control?

 Quality Control (QC) is the implementation of regular

testing procedures against your definitions of quality
and more specifically the refinement of these
procedures
 Formal use of testing
 Acting on the results of your tests
 Requires planning, structured tests, good
documentation
 Relates to output - Quality Circle
 Standards - ISO 9000 & BS5750

Quality Control (QC) process evaluates actual performance, compares

actual performance to goal and takes action on the difference
 Objectives of Quality Control

(1) To decide about the standard of Quality of a product

that is easily acceptable to the customer.
(2) To check the variation during manufacturing.
(3) To prevent the poor quality products reaching to
customer.

There are 3 main objectives of quality control: enhance

product quality and reduce risks, gain production
efficiencies, and maintain customer loyalty.
144
 Quality Control

 The process through which the standards are established and met
with standards is called control. This process consists of observing
our activity performance, comparing the performance with some
standard and then taking action if the observed performance is
significantly different from the standards.
 The control process involves a universal sequence of steps as
follows :
(1) Choose the control subject.
(2) Choose a unit of measure.
(3) Set a standard value i.e., specify the quality characteristics
(4) Choose a sensing device which can measure.
(5) Measure actual performance.
(6) Interpret the difference between actual and standard.
(7) Taking action, if any, on the difference.
 The Feedback Loop

 Quality control takes place by use of the

feedback loop. A generic form of the feedback
loop is shown below
 ISO As A Data Quality Management System
 ISO 9004-1: General quality guidelines to implement a quality system.
 ISO 9004-4: Guidelines for implementing continuous quality
improvement within the organisation, using tools and techniques based
on data collection and analysis.
 ISO 10005: Guidance on how to prepare quality plans for the control
of specific projects.
 ISO 10011-1: Guidelines for auditing a quality system.
 ISO 10011-2: Guidance on the qualification criteria for quality
systems auditors.
 ISO 10011-3: Guidelines for managing quality system audit
programmes.
 ISO 10012: Guidelines on calibration systems and statistical controls
to ensure that measurements are made with the intended accuracy.
 ISO 10013: Guidelines for developing quality manuals to meet specific
needs.
Source: http://www.iso.ch/
 Materials Quality Control

 Quality Control is conducted by a team…

 Design engineer
 Materials/Metallurgical engineer
 Stress engineer
 Raw materials producer
 Production Planner
 Technician
 Quality Assurance Inspector
 Statistical Quality Control (SQC)

 Statistica1 quality control (SQC) is the term used to describe the

set of statistical tools used by quality professionals. Statistical
quality control can be divided into three broad categories:
1) Descriptive statistics are used to describe quality
characteristics and relationships. Included are statistics such
as the mean, standard deviation, the range, and a measure of
the distribution of data.
2) Statistical process control (SPC) involves inspecting a random
sample of the output from a process and deciding whether the
process is producing products with characteristics that fall
within a predetermined range. SPC answers the question of
whether the process is functioning properly or not.
3) Acceptance sampling is the process of randomly inspecting a
sample of goods and deciding whether to accept the entire lot
based on the results. Acceptance sampling determines
whether a batch of goods should be accepted or rejected
 SQC

 A Quality control system performs inspection, testing

and analysis to conclude whether the quality of each
product is as per laid quality standard or not.
 It’s called ‘‘Statistical Quality Control’’ when
statistical techniques are employed to control quality
or to solve quality control problem.
 SQC makes inspection more reliable and at the same
time less costly.
 It controls the quality levels of the outgoing
products.
 SQC should be viewed as a kit of tools which may
influence related to the function of specification,
production or inspection.
 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

 Descriptive statistics can be helpful in describing

certain characteristics of a product and a process. The
most important descriptive statistics are measures of
central tendency such as the
 The Mean

 The Range and Standard Deviation

 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
 Normal distributions with varying  Differences between symmetric
standard deviations and skewed distributions

 When a distribution is symmetric, there are the same

number of observations below and above the mean
 When a disproportionate number of observations are
either above or below the mean, we say that the data
has a skewed distribution.
 Developing Control Charts

 A control chart (also called process chart or quality

control chart) is a graph that shows whether a sample
of data falls within the common or normal range of
variation.
 A control chart has upper and lower control limits that
separate common from assignable causes of variation.
 We say that a process is out of control when a plot of
data reveals that one or more samples fall outside the
control limits.
 Control Charts

 The center line (CL) of the control chart is the mean, or average, of
the quality characteristic that is being measured.
 The upper control limit (UCL) is the maximum acceptable variation
from the mean for a process that is in a state of control.
 Similarly, the lower control limit (LCL) is the minimum acceptable
variation from the mean for a process that is in a state of control.
 Control Chart

 We say that a process is out of control when a plot of

data reveals that one or more samples fall outside the
control limits.
 You can see that if a sample of observations falls
outside the control limits we need to look for
assignable causes.
 Assignable causes of variation involves variations
where the causes can be precisely identified and
eliminated.
 Examples of this type of variation are poor quality in
raw materials, an employee who needs more training,
or a machine in need of repair.
 Common causes of variation

 Common causes of variation: Random causes that

cannot be identified
 These types of variation are unavoidable and are
due to slight differences in processing
 No two products are exactly alike because of
slight differences in materials, workers, machines,
tools, and other factors.
 Types of Control Charts

 There are two main types of Control Charts:

1. Control Charts for Variables: Control charts
for variables monitor characteristics that can
be measured and have a continuous scale, such
as height, weight, volume, or width

2. Control Charts for Attributes: Control

charts for attributes are used to measure
quality characteristics that are counted
rather than measured. Attributes are
discrete in nature and entail simple yes-or-no
decisions.
 CONTROL CHARTS FOR VARIABLES

 Control charts for variables monitor characteristics

that can be measured and have a continuous scale, such
as height, weight, volume, or width
 When an item is inspected, the variable being monitored
is measured and recorded.
 For example, if we were producing candles, height
might be an important variable. We could take samples
of candles and measure their heights.
 Mean (X-Bar) Charts: A control chart used to monitor
changes in the mean value of a process.
 Range (R) Charts: A control chart that monitors
changes in the dispersion or variability of a process.
 Constructing a Mean (X-Bar) Chart
 The center line of the chart is then computed as the mean of all
sample means, where is the number of samples:

 To construct the upper and lower

control limits of the chart, we use
the following formulas:
 Constructing a Mean (X-Bar) Chart from the
Sample Range

 Another way to construct the control limits is to use the sample

range as an estimate of the variability of the process.
 The spread of the range can tell us about the variability of the data.
 In this case control limits would be constructed as follows:

A2 = factor obtained from Tables

Note that A2 is a factor that includes three standard deviations of

ranges and is dependent on the sample size being considered.
Source: Factors adapted from the ASTM Manual on Quality Control of Materials
Source: Factors adapted from the ASTM Manual on Quality Control of Materials
 EXAMPLE 1: Constructing a Mean (x-Bar) Chart

 A quality control inspector at the Cocoa Fizz soft drink

company has taken twenty-five samples with four
observations each of the volume of bottles filled. The
data and the computed means are shown in the table. If
the standard deviation of the bottling operation is 0.14
ounces, use this information to develop control limits of
three standard deviations for the bottling operation.
 Test Data

Remember that the range is simply the difference between the largest and smallest
values in the sample.
Continuation of Test Data
Solution
 Resulting Control Chart
The resulting control chart is:

The process is under control since all the data points are within the control
limits
EXAMPLE 2: Constructing a Mean (x-Bar)
Chart from the Sample Range
 Range (R) Charts

 Range (R) charts are another type of control chart for variables.
Whereas x-bar charts measure shift in the central tendency of the
process, range charts monitor the dispersion or variability of the
process.
 The method for developing and using R-charts is the same as that
for x-bar charts.
 The center line of the control chart is the average range, and the
upper and lower control limits are computed as follows:

where values for D4 and D3 are obtained from Tables

 Example 3: Constructing a Range (R) Chart

The quality control inspector at Cocoa Fizz would like to develop a

range (R) chart in order to monitor volume dispersion in the bottling
process. Use the data from Example 1 to develop control limits for
the sample range.
 Test Data

Remember that the range is simply the difference between the largest and smallest
values in the sample.
Continuation of Test Data
The resulting control chart is:
 CONTROL CHARTS FOR ATTRIBUTES
 Control charts for attributes are used to measure quality
characteristics that are counted rather than measured.
 Attributes are discrete in nature and entail simple yes-or-
no decisions.
 For example, this could be the number of nonfunctioning
lightbulbs, the proportion of broken eggs in a carton, the
number of rotten apples, the number of scratches on a
tile, or the number of complaints issued.
 Two of the most common types of control charts for
attributes are p-charts and c-charts.
 P-charts are used to measure the proportion of items
in a sample that are defective.
 C-charts count the actual number of defects.
 Problem-Solving Tip:
 The primary difference between using a p-chart and a
c-chart is as follows.
 A p-chart is used when both the total sample size
and the number of defects can be computed.
 A c-chart is used when we can compute only the
number of defects but cannot compute the
proportion that is defective.
 P-Charts

z is selected to be either 2 or 3
standard deviations, depending
on the amount of data we wish to
capture in our control limits. Usually,
however, they are set at 3.

The sample standard deviation is computed as follows:

where n is the sample size.
 Example 4: Constructing a p-Chart
A production manager at a tire manufacturing plant has inspected the
number of defective tires in twenty random samples with twenty
observations each. Following are the number of defective tires found in
each sample:
Constructing a p-Chart
 Construct a three-sigma control chart

Construct a three-sigma control chart (z = 3) with this information.

Solution
The center line of the chart is

In this example the lower control limit is negative, which sometimes occurs
because the computation is an approximation of the binomial distribution. When
this occurs, the LCL is rounded up to zero because we cannot have a negative
control limit.
 Resulting Control Chart

The resulting control chart is as follows:

C-CHARTS
 Computing a C-Chart

The number of weekly customer complaints are monitored at a large

hotel using a c-chart. Complaints have been recorded over the past
twenty weeks. Develop three-sigma control limits using the following
data:

As in the previous example, the LCL is negative and should be

rounded up to zero. Following is the control chart for this example:
Resulting Control Chart
 Before You Go On

 We have discussed several types of statistical quality control

(SQC) techniques.
 One category of SQC techniques consists of descriptive
statistics tools such as the mean, range, and standard deviation.
 These tools are used to describe quality characteristics and
relationships.
 Another category of SQC techniques consists of statistical
process control (SPC) methods that are used to monitor changes
in the production process.
 To understand SPC methods you must understand the differences
between common and assignable causes of variation.
 Common causes of variation are based on random causes that
cannot be identified.
 You should also understand the different types of quality control
charts that are used to monitor the production process: x-bar
charts, R-range charts, p-charts, and c-charts.
 Statistical Quality Control (SQC)
 A successful SQC programme is expected to yield the
following results :
(1) Improvement of quality.
(2) Reduction of scrap and rework.
(3) Efficient use of men and machines.
(4) Economy in use of materials.
(5) Removing production bottle-necks.
(6) Decreased inspection costs.
(7) Reduction in cost/unit.
(8) Scientific evaluation of tolerance.
(9) Scientific evaluation of quality and production.
(10) Quality consciousness at all levels.
(11) Reduction in customer complaints.
 Advantages and Limitations of SPC
 Advantages

1) Emphasis on early detection -An advantage of SPC over other

methods of quality control, such as "inspection", is that it
emphasizes early detection and prevention of problems, rather than
the correction of problems after they have occurred.
2) Increasing rate of production -In addition to reducing waste, SPC
can lead to a reduction in the time required to produce the product.
SPC makes it less likely the finished product will need to be
reworked or scrapped.
 Limitations

1) SPC is applied to reduce or eliminate process waste. This, in turn,

eliminates the need for the process step of post-manufacture
inspection. The success of SPC relies not only on the skill with which
it is applied, but also on how suitable or amenable the process is to
SPC. In some cases, it may be difficult to judge when the
application of SPC is appropriate.
 What is Quality Assurance?
 What is Quality?
Quality is the ability of your product to be able to
satisfy your users
 What is Quality Assurance?
Quality Assurance is the process that demonstrates
your product is able to satisfy your users

 What is the aim of Quality Assurance?

o When good Quality Assurance is implemented there
should be improvement in usability and performance
and lessening rates of defects
 The Relation to Quality Assurance
 Quality control and quality assurance have much in
common. These may include
1) Each evaluate performance
2) Each compares performance to goals
3) Each acts on the difference

 However they also differ from each other. Thus for

quality control
1) It has its primary purpose to maintain control
2) Performance is evaluated during operations, and performance
is compared to goals during operations
3) The resulting information is provided to both the operating
forces and others who have a need to know
4) Others may include plant, functional, or sector management,
corporate staff, regulatory bodies, customers, and the general
public
Quality Assurance vs. Quality Control

 The difference is that Quality Assurance is process

oriented and focuses on defect prevention, while
quality control is product oriented and focuses on
defect identification.
 Testing, therefore is product oriented and thus is in
the QC domain. Testing for quality
isn't assuring quality, it's controlling it.
 Quality Assurance makes sure you are doing the right
things, the right way.
 Quality Control makes sure the results of what you've
done are what you expected.
 What does QA give?

 Quality’ means your product is ‘useful’ -

without ‘quality’ you may have little to offer
 ‘Quality’ can help to future-proof products
 But ‘quality assurance’ needs documented standards
and best practices to be meaningful
 ‘Quality’ & ‘Best Practice’ can be considered in terms
of being ‘Fit for Purpose’
 Inspection
 Inspection is the most common method of attaining
standardisation, uniformity and quality of workmanship.
 It is the cost art of controlling the product quality
after comparison with the established standards and
specifications.
 It is the function of quality control.
 If the said item does not fall within the zone of
acceptability it will be rejected and corrective measure
will be applied to see that the items in future conform
to specified standards.
 It helps to control quality, reduces manufacturing
costs, eliminate scrap losses and assignable causes of
defective work.
 Objectives of Inspection

(1) To collect information regarding the performance of

the product with established standards for the use of
engineering production, purchasing and quality control
etc.
(2) To sort out poor quality of manufactured product and
thus to maintain standards.
(3) To establish and increase the reputation by
protecting customers from receiving poor quality
products.
(4) Detect source of weakness and failure in the finished
products and thus check the work of designer
 Purpose of Inspection
(1) To distinguish good lots from bad lots
(2) To distinguish good pieces from bad pieces.
(3) To determine if the process is changing.
(4) To determine if the process is approaching the
specification limits.
(5) To rate quality of product.
(6) To rate accuracy of inspectors.
(7) To measure the precision of the measuring
instrument.
(8) To secure products – design information.
(9) To measure process capability.
 Stages of Inspection
(1) Inspection of incoming material
o It consists of inspecting and checking of all the purchased
raw materials and parts that are supplied before they are
taken on to stock or used in actual manufacturing. It may
take place either at supplier’s end or at manufacturer’s gate.
If the incoming materials are large in quantity and involve
huge transportation cost it is economical to inspect them at
the place of vendor or supplier.
(2) Inspection of production process
o The work of inspection is done while the production process
is simultaneously going on. Inspection is done at various work
centres of men and machines and at the critical production
points. This had the advantage of preventing wastage of time
and money on defective units and preventing delays in
assembly.
 Stages of Inspection

(3) Inspection of finished goods.

o This is the last stage when finished goods are
inspected and carried out before marketing to
see that poor quality product may be either
rejected or sold at reduced price.
 Inspection Procedures
 There are three ways of doing inspection. They are Floor inspection, Centralised
inspection and Combined inspection.
 Floor Inspection
oIt suggests the checking of materials in process at the machine or in the
production time by patrolling inspectors. These inspectors moves from machine to
machine and from one to the other work centres. Inspectors have to be highly
skilled. This method of inspection minimise the material handling, does not disrupt
the line layout of machinery and quickly locate the defect and readily offers field
and correction.
Advantages Disadvantages
(1) Encourage co-operation of inspector and (1) Difficult in inspection due to
foreman. vibration.
(2) Random checking may be more successful (2) Possibility of biased inspection
than batch checking.
because of worker.

(3) Does not delay in production. (3) Pressure on inspector.

(4) Saves time and expense of having to more (4) High cost of inspection because
of numerous sets of inspections
batches of work for inspection.
and skilled inspectors.
(5) Inspectors may see and be able to report
on reason of faculty work.
 Centralised Inspection

 Materials in process may be inspected and checked at centralised

inspection centre which are located at one or more places in the
manufacturing industry.
 Advantages
 (1) Better quality checkup.
 (2) Closed supervision.
 (3) Absence of workers pressure.
 (4) Orderly production flow and low inspection cost.
 Disadvantages
 (1) More material handling.
 (2) Delays of inspection room causes wastage of time.
 (3) Work of production control increases.
 (4) Due to non-detection of machining errors in time, there may
be more spoilage of work.
 Combined Inspection

 Combination of two methods what ever may be the

method of inspection, whether floor or central. The
main objective is to locate and prevent defect which
may not repeat itself in subsequent operation to see
whether any corrective measure is required and finally
to maintained quality economically.
 Methods of Inspection

 There are two methods of inspection. They are 100%

inspection and Sampling inspection.
 100% Inspection
o This type will involve careful inspection in detail of
quality at each strategic point or stage of manufacture
where the test involved is non-destructive and every
piece is separately inspected. It requires more number
of inspectors and hence it is a costly method. There is no
sampling error. This is subjected to inspection error
arising out of fatigue, negligence, difficulty of
supervision etc. Hence complete accuracy of influence is
seldomly attained.
o It is suitable only when a small number of pieces are
there or a very high degree of quality is required.
Example : Jet engines, Aircraft, Medical and Scientific
equipment.
 Sampling Inspection
 In this method randomly selected samples are inspected. Samples
taken from different batches of products are representatives. If
the sample prove defective. The entire concerned is to be
rejected or recovered. Sampling inspection is cheaper and quicker.
It requires less number of Inspectors. Its subjected to sampling
errors but the magnitude of sampling error can be estimated. In
the case of destructive test, random or sampling inspection is
desirable. This type of inspection governs wide currency due to
the introduction of automatic machines or equipment which are
less susceptible to chance variable and hence require less
inspection, suitable for inspection of products which have less
precision importance and are less costly.
 Example: Electrical bulbs, radio bulbs, washing machine etc.
o Destructive tests conducted for the products whose
endurance or ultimate strength properties are required.
 Example: Flexible strength, resistance capacity, compressibility
etc.
 Drawbacks of Inspection

 (1)Inspection adds to the cost of the product but not

for its value.
 (2)It is partially subjective, often the inspector has to
judge whether a product passes or not.
o Example : Inspector discovering a slight burnish on a
surface must decide whether it is bad enough to
justify rejection even with micrometers a tight or
loose fit change measurement by say 0.0006 inches.
The inspectors design is important as he enforces
quality standards.
 (3)Fatigue and Monotony may affect any inspection
judgement.
 (4)Inspection merely separates good and bad items. It is
no way to prevent the production of bad items.
 Materials Quality Control Techniques

Materials property verification

 Destructive Testing
 Non-destructive Testing
 Materials Quality Control Techniques

Destructive Testing
 Corrosion Testing
 Tensile Testing
 Impact Testing
 Materials Quality Control Techniques

 Non-destructive Testing
 Liquid penetrant Testing
 Radiograhic Testing
 Impulse Excitation Testing
 Ultrasonic Testing
 Electromagnetic Testing
 Acoustic Emission Testing
 Positive Material Identification
 Hardness Testing
 Infrared and Thermal Testing
 Laser Testing
 Leak Detection
 SEE YOU
IN THE
EXAM
205
Demo: trade off plots
207