• AC Fundamentals

• Introduction:
• Electricity flows in two ways either in an alternating current (AC) or in
a direct current (DC). 
• Electricity or "current" is the movement of electrons through a conductor.
• The difference between AC and DC lies in the direction in which the electrons
flow.
• Alternating current can to transfer over large distances.
• AC is use more than 90 % as compare to DC because of many advantages of
ac such as high generation, high transmission, can step up and step down,
ac machines are cheap and easy to design etc.
• AC Quantity:
• An alternating quantity such as ac voltage/ac current/ac power is, which
changes its direction as well as its quantity w.r.t. time.
• The waveform of ac quantities is plotted ac quantities vs. time. AC quantities
are on the Y axis and time is on X axis.
Types of AC waveforms:
• The ac wave can be represented as triangular, square or trapezoidal
waveform.
• Any shape of waveform which changes its direction as well as quantity is
called ac waveform. There are two types of ac waveforms.
• Sine wave
• Cosine wave
The sine waves are represented by two ways, given below:
• Graphical representation
• Mathematical representation
1. Graphical Representation of AC
Quantity:
• The ac quantities plotted against time and
the both respective quantities offers
sinusoidal waveform.
• We use sinusoidal waveform more than
others because of easy for mathematical as
well as graphical representation.
• We use sinusoidal waveform more than
others because of easy for mathematical as
well as graphical representation.
• One cycle of ac consist of one positive half
and one negative half cycle.
• Both half cycle attains their maximum
quantities.
  
Sr.
Alternating Current (AC) Direct Current (DC)
No.
1. Figure

2. Magnitude change Doesn’t change

3.  Direction change Doesn’t change
4. Frequency 50 Hz to 60Hz depending upon Zero
country

5. Current Varying with time Constant

Magnitude
6. Types Sinusoidal, trapezoidal, triangular, Pure or pulsating
square

7. Generation AC generator or alternator DC generator, battery or cells

• Mathematical Representation of AC Quantity:
The ac quantities represented in the form of mathematical equations.
Figure shows the graphical representation of sine wave:
Mathematically,

But, rad/sec.
From equation (1),

Where,

f- Frequency (Hz)
t- Variable time (sec.)
Vm- Maximum value of voltage

From equation (2),

Similarly for instantaneous current,

• Generation of AC Voltage:
• The machine which convert mechanical
energy in to an alternating electrical energy is
called alternator.
• For understanding working of alternator let's
consider a single rectangular turn placed in
between two opposite magnetic pole as shown
in figure.
• If we rotate this rectangular coil by using
turbine then it cuts magnetic lines and
induces emf according to Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction.
• Whenever, conductor cuts the magnetic lines
it induces emf in it.
• The amount of voltage induced in coil is
depend upon the position of rotating coil
placed in magnetic field.
• The coil positions are θ=0°,90°,180°,270°and
360° for one complete cycle.
Definitions:
• Instantaneous Value:
The value of an alternating quantity at a particular instant of time is called
instantaneous value. Each time instant gives respective alternating quantity. E.g. at
t1, t2_ _ tn we are getting i1, i2_ _in.
• Waveform:
The graph of instantaneous value of an alternating quantity verses time is called
waveform.
• Cycle:
Each repetition of a set of positive half wave and negative half wave is called one
cycle. This repetition occur at equal intervals of time. Mathematically, one cycle is
from 0 to 2π rad or 0° to 360°.
• Time (T):
The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called time. After
each T seconds, the cycle repeats w.r.t. time.
• Frequency (f):
The number of cycle completed in one second by an alternating quantity is called
frequency.

The frequency is inversely proportional to time then time is increases or decrease,

frequency decreases or increases.
• Amplitude:
The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity in positive and negative half
cycle is called amplitude or peak value. Denoted by Vm or Im.
• Angular Velocity (ω):
Rate of change of angle (θ) w.r.t. time. The angle change from 0 to 2π rad and time
from 0 to T sec.
Mathematically,

• Peak to Peak Voltage (Vp):

For an identical sinewave, it is maximum values of voltage measured from baseline for
positive and negative half cycle.
Root Mean Square(R.M.S.) Value or Effective Value:
• An alternating current varies w.r.t. time, while direct current
remains constant.
• So, for the comparison these currents we must consider
common effect and that common effect is generation of heat
due to current flowing in resistor.
• Definition: An ac current equal to dc current that is required
to generate the same amount of heat as generated from ac
current when flowing through same resistance and same time
or amount of AC power that produces the same heating effect
as an equivalent DC power.
• All the ac quantities are expressed in term of R.M.S. values.
• It is denoted Irms or Vrms.
• RMS value is 0.707 times its maximum value.
• It is heat generating component of ac current.
• All ac instruments shows RMS values.
Mathematically,

• The RMS value of a sinusoidal waveform can be find out by

two basic methods which are graphical and analytical method.
V rms =0.707 ×V max
or

I rms =0.707 × I max

Graphical Method:
• We are considering only half waveform because area of positive half wave is equal
to area of negative half wave
• The positive half is divided into ‘n’ nos.of equal parts. Now, V 1, V2---Vn are the
instantaneous voltages or heights of a respective time instant t 1, t2—tn. The RMS
value is defined as the square root of the mean of the square of the mid-ordinates
of the half of voltage waveform.
• Mathematically,
Analytical Method:
For sinusoidal voltage, we have following equation,

The square of the above voltage will be,

Take square root of above equation,

Similarly,
Graphical Method:
Consider sinusoidally varying current. The r.m.s. value is to be get by comparing heat produced.
Consider only half positive half cycle which is divided into ‘n’ intervals. The width of each interval is ‘t/n’ seconds
and average
height of each interval is assumed to be the average instantaneous values of current i.e. Let this current is passing
through resistance ‘R’ Ω.

Hence,

Total heat produced in ‘t’ seconds

Now, heat produced by direct current I amperes

passing through same resistance ‘R’ for the same time
‘t’ is
Similarly for voltage,
Average Value:
• Here, the instantaneous values are not squared and we don’t find the square root of
the summed mean. It is the averaging of all the instantaneous values along time
axis with time being one full period (T).
• We are considering only half waveform because area of positive half wave is equal to
area of negative half wave.
• All the dc quantities are expressed in term of R.M.S. values.
• It is denoted Iavg or Vavg.
• Average value is 0.637 times its maximum value.
• It is heat generating component of ac current.
• All ac instruments shows RMS values.
• The average value of a sinusoidal waveform can be find out by two basic methods
which are graphical and analytical method.

Similarly,
Graphical Method:
The positive half is divided into ‘n’
nos.of equal parts. Now, V1, V2---Vn
be the instantaneous voltages or
heights of a respective time instant
t1, t2---tn. Then the average voltage
(VAV) is the mean sum of mid-
ordinates of the voltage waveform
and is given as:

Similarly,
Analytical Method:
For sinusoidal voltage, we have following
equation,

Similarly,
Peak and Form Factor:
 Peak Factor or amplitude or crest (Kp):
Peak factor for sinusoidal ac quantities is the ratio of maximum value to its
r.m.s. value of an alternating quantity.

This value is always greater than 1.

The form factor is always greater than average, r.m.s. value and peak factor
 
 Form Factor (Kf):
Form factor for sinusoidal ac quantities is the ratio of RMS value to its average
value of an alternating quantity.

The peak value is always greater than average as well as r.m.s. value.
Phasor Representation of AC Quantities:
• If there more than one ac quantities to represent in the waveform then it became
cumbersome to draw or representing in mathematical form.
• Therefore to representing nos.of ac quantities rotating phasors we use.
• These quantities represent in form of straight line with arrow at one side shows
sinusoidal quantity.
• Phasors are always rotates in anticlockwise direction represent r.m.s. as well as
maximum value. Phase difference is the difference, expressed in degrees or time,
between two an alternating quantities having the same frequency and referenced to
the same point in time.
Leading Phase Difference:
An alternating quantities in which one ac quantity reaches its zero or peak value
earlier as compare to other ac quantity on the same time axis.
If angle Φ is positive in the equation then Φ is leading phase angle.
Voltage VA leads to VB by an angle Φ.
Where,
Lagging Phase Difference:
An alternating quantities in which one ac quantity reaches its zero or peak value later
than other ac quantity on the same time axis. If angle Φ is negative in the equation
then Φ is lagging phase angle.
Voltage VB lags to VA by an angle Φ.
In-Phase:
• When two an alternating quantities have same time and there is no any phase
difference between them i.e. not leading or lagging phase difference.
• These ac quantities are start at same time and end at same time.
• These ac quantities have same directions is called in phase
• The magnitude of these ac quantities can be different.
Out of Phase:
• When two an alternating quantities have same time but there is 180° phase
difference between them and they are not leading or lagging phase difference.
• These ac quantities are start at same time and end at same time.
• These ac quantities have opposite directions is called out of phase
• The magnitude of these ac quantities can be different.
Phasors Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication and Division:
If more than one ac quantities present for calculation then we have to convert in to in
different phasors forms namely, polar and rectangular form.
 Polar Form:
If the instantaneous value of ac quantities is given, then this quantity is in polar form
is
E.g. i (t) =10 sin (120π+30°)
The above equation is in polar form, i (t) =10∟30° Amp. For multiplication and division
of more than one ac quantities, the polar form required.
 Rectangular Form:
If the rectangular form of ac quantities is given, i (t) = x + j y
Where, x=Im cos Φ and y= Im sin Φ
Put x and y in above equation, i (t) = Im cos Φ + j Im sin Φ
E.g. i (t) =5 sin (20πt+45°) in polar form, i (t) =5∟45°.
This polar form can be converted in rectangular form as, i (t) = (5 cos45°+j5 sin 45°)
For addition and subtraction of more than one ac quantities, the rectangular form
required.
 Conversion of Polar Form to Rectangular Form:
When the phasor is given in the polar form (r∟±Φ) and convert into rectangular form
by following method:
i (t) =(r cos Φ ± j r sin Φ)
 Conversion of Rectangular Form to Polar Form:
When the phasor is given in the rectangular form i=x ± j y and convert in to polar form
by following method:
i= r∟Φ
Where,

 Multiplication and division of Phasors:

If phasors are given in rectangular form then convert it into polar form.

Magnitude are multiplied and angles are added.

Magnitude are divided and angles are subtracts