Why Regulation of Gene Expression Is Important?
Why Regulation of Gene Expression Is Important?
Why Regulation of Gene Expression Is Important?
•Cellular function is largely dictated by the set of macromolecules inside the cell.
•Different macromolecules accumulate to different levels under different growth
conditions and in different cell types.
•Diseases can be caused by aberrant control of gene expression: too much or too little
of a protein; wrong time and wrong place for a protein.
Transcription of DNA into RNA by
RNA polymerasean overview
1. Requires DNA template, four ribonucleotide
Template (non
5’ triphosphates, Mg+2.
coding) strand
2. De novo synthesis: does not require a primer.
Low fidelity compared to DNA polymerase:
errors 1/104105 (105 higher than DNA
polymerase).
3. Activity highly regulated in vivo: at initiation,
elongation and termination.
4. The nucleotide at the 5’ end of an RNA strand
retains all three of its phosphate groups; all
subsequent nucleotides release pyrophosphate
(PPi) when added to the chain and retain only
their α phosphate (red).
5. The released PPi is subsequently hydrolyzed
by pyrophosphatase to Pi, driving the
equilibrium of the overall reaction toward chain
elongation.
6. Growth of the transcript always occurs in the
Nontemplate
5’to3’ direction. (coding) strand
E. coli RNA polymerase holoenzyme bound to DNA
Strong promoters: close to consensus sequences and spacing
Weak promoters: contain multiple substitutions at the 35 and 10 regions
Dissociation of RNAP and purification of σ
by ionexchange chromatography
α β
σ
α
β’
ω
[NaCl]
[protein]
Carboxymethyl (CO22) or
phospho (PO32) cellulose Fraction number
σ α β
α β’
ω
The dissociable sigma subunit gives promoter specificity to
prokaryotic RNA polymerase (RNAP)
α β α σ β
+ σ
α α
β’ β’
ω ω
Core enzyme Holoenzyme
No specific promoter binding; Specific promoter binding; weak
tight nonspecific DNA binding nonspecific DNA binding (Kd
(Kd ~5 x 1012 M) ~107 M); finds promoter 10,000
times faster.
Transcription initiation by prokaryotic RNA polymerase
Holoenzyme “sliding and scanning”
Promoter
α β 35 10
σ
α
β’
Closed complex α σ β
α
β’
Sigma separates
rNTPs from the core
PPi once a few
phosphodiester
Core enzyme bonds are formed
Open complex; initiation α β
α
5’pppA β’ σ
mRNA
Interactions of various sigma factors of E. coli with the same
core polymerase to form holoenzymes with different promoter
binding specificity
Sigma
Factor Promoters Recognized Promoter Consensus
35 Region 10 Region
σ70 Most genes TTGACAT TATAAT
σ32 Genes induced by heat shock TCTCNCCCTTGAA CCCCATNTA
σ28 Genes for motility and chemotaxis CTAAA CCGATAT
σ38 Genes for stationary phase and stress response ? ?
24 Region 12 Region
σ54 Genes for nitrogen metabolism & other functions CTGGNA
TTGCA
Heatshock response:
High temperature induces the production of σ32, which binds to the core
polymerase to form a unique holoenzyme for recognition of the promoters of heat
shock induced genes.
Rhoindependent prokaryotic transcription termination
The core polymerase pauses after
synthesizing a hairpin. If the hairpin is
really a terminator, RNA will dissociate
from the DNA strand as the AU pairing
is unstable. Once the RNA is gone, DNA
duplex reforms and the core is driven off,
as it has low affinity for dsDNA.
Rhodependent transcription termination
Rhobinding Site
(noncontiguous
structural features
in RNA): Stop
signals not
recognized by
RNAP alone.
Rho: forms RNAdependent hexameric ATPase,
translocates along RNA 5’to3’, pulling RNA
away when it reaches the transcription bubble. termination
Platt, Ann. Rev. Biochem. 55: 339 (1986)
Three types of RNA polymerase in eukaryotic nuclei
Type Location RNA synthesized Effect of αamanitin
• αamanitin from Amanita Phalloides binds tightly to RNA Pol II and blocks
transcriptional elongation.
• RNA Pol I transcribe 1 gene at ~200 copies. The gene for the 45S prerRNA is
present in tandem array.
• RNA Pol II transcribe ~25,000 genes;
• RNA Pol III transcribe 3050 genes at variable copy numbers.
(Also Organelle RNAPs in Mitochondria and Chloroplasts. Encoded by organelle
genomes. Similar to bacterial RNAPs.)
Comparison of 3D structures of bacterial and eukaryotic RNA polymerases
Transcription start sites can be mapped by S1 protection
and primer extension
Obtained in vitro or in vivo
•Mapping the start site for
synthesis of a particular
mRNA often helps identify
the DNA regulatory
sequences that control its
Red dot: 32P end label
transcription, because
some of the regulatory
elements are located near
the start site.
•The position of the start
site can be mapped from
the length of the labeled
probe segment protected
from S1 digestion (S1
protection) or the
resulting extension
product (primer
extension) on
polyacrylamideurea gel
(same as DNA sequencing
gel).
Core Promoter Elements
In vitro stepwise assembly of the
RNA Pol II preinitiation complex
(PIC) at core promoter for basal
transcription
Basal (‘General’) Transcription Factors for RNA Polymerase II
Total: 4344 polypeptides and over 2 million daltons.
“Gel shift”: electrophoretic mobility shift assay
(EMSA) for studying DNAprotein interactions
*
ProteinDNA complex
*
Free DNA probe
ON: protein mixture loaded onto an ionexchange
1. Prepare labeled DNA probe column.
2. Bind protein Fraction 122: fractions eluted from the column with
3. Native gel electrophoresis increasing salt concentrations.
Advantage: sensitive Disadvantage: requires stable complex;
little information about where protein is
binding on DNA
Stepwise assembly of preinitiation complex (PIC)
as revealed by gel shift assay
Eukaryotic transcription cycle
Only the
unphosphorylated
RNA Pol II enters
PIC.
The TFIIH complex
has both helicase
and kinase activities
that can unwind
DNA and
phosphorylate the
CTD tail of RNA
Pol II.
Release of
TFIIE and then
IIH during the
synthesis of the
initial 6070nt.
CTD
FCP1 2 5
CTD
Recycling 2
2 5
Pol II
2 5
5
Pol II
TFIIH PTEFb
CycT1
CTD CTD
CDK9 2 5 2 5
5
2 5 2 5
5
2 2
5 2 5 2 5
Pol II Pol II Pol II Pol II
5 5 5
+1
5’ cap
RNA
Promoter
PIC clearance Release Productive
assembly & pausing from
pausing elongation
for capping
CTD heptapeptide repeats: 2752 x (YS
2
PTS5PS)
Cisacting control elements
(a) Genes of multicellular organisms contain both promoterproximal elements and
enhancers (collectively referred to as cicacting control elements) as well as a TATA
box or other core promoter element(s).
(b) Enhancers function in a distance, position and orientationindependent manner. Long
distance interactions are achieved by forming looped DNA.
(c) Most yeast genes contain only one regulatory region, called an upstream activating
sequence (UAS), and a TATA box, which is ≈90 base pairs upstream from the start
site. (Also note: many yeast genes do not contain introns).
(d) In multicellular organisms, one standard promoterproximal element is a GCbox
(GGGCGGGC) recognized by the “constitutive” transcriptional activator Sp1.
DNA affinity chromatography for purification of Sp1
DNase I footprinting: a common technique
for identifying proteinbinding sites in DNA.
1. A DNA fragment is labeled at one end with
32
P (red dot).
2. Portions of the sample then are digested
with DNase I in the presence and absence of a
protein that binds to a specific sequence in the
fragment.
3. A low concentration of DNase I is used so
that on average each DNA molecule is cleaved
just once (vertical arrows).
4. The two samples of DNA then are separated
from protein, denatured to separate the
strands, and electrophoresed. The resulting gel
is analyzed by autoradiography, which detects
only labeled strands and reveals fragments
extending from the labeled end to the site of
cleavage by DNase I.
Analyses of affinitypurified Sp1 protein
DNase I footprint SDSPAGE/
on SV40 promoter silverstain
Sp1
Lane 2 contains
total cell proteins
prior to affinity
purification;
Lanes 3&4 contain
purified Sp1
protein washed off
the affinity column.
NaCl
In vitro transcription assay to measure Sp1 activity
•The adenovirus DNA
template used here does not
contain any Sp1binding sites
(GCbox) and is therefore
used as a negative control.
•In vitro transcription
reactions contain template
DNA, labeled ribonucleoside
triphosphates, and purified
general transcription factors
and RNA Pol II. Purified Sp1
is added to the reactions
indicated with “+”.
In vivo assay for transcription factor activity
• Host cells should lack the
gene encoding protein X
and the reporter protein.
• The production of
reportergene RNA
transcripts or the activity
cotransfection of the encoded protein can
be assayed.
• If reportergene
transcription is greater in
the presence of the X
encoding plasmid, then X
is an activator; if
Reportergene
products transcription is less, then
X is a repressor.
The Production of DNA Microarrays and Their Use in
Monitoring Global Gene Transcription
Regulation of prokaryotic transcription
1. Singlecelled organisms with short doubling times must respond extremely
rapidly to their environment.
2. Halflife of most mRNAs is short (on the order of a few minutes).
5. Coupled transcription and translation occur in a single cellular compartment.
Therefore, transcription initiation is usually the major control point.
Most prokaryotic genes are regulated in units called operons (Jacob and
Monod, 1960)
Operon: a coordinated unit of gene expression consisting of one or more related
genes and the operator and promoter sequences that regulate their transcription.
The mRNAs thus produced are “polycistronic’—multiple genes on a single
transcript.
The trp operon: two kinds of negative regulation
(low trp levels)
(high trp levels)
Tryptophan + trp repressor dimer
Trprepressor complex
activated for DNA
binding
Binds Operator; blocks
RNAP binding &
represses transcription;
Tryptophan a corepressor
Translation of part of the leader mRNA to produce the leader peptide
What is the attenuator?
The attenuator is a Rhoindependent transcription terminator!
Presence of Trp codons within the leader peptide is highly significant!
Attenuation is mediated by the tight coupling of
transcription and translation
•The ribosome translating the trp leader mRNA follows closely behind the RNA
polymerase that is transcribing the DNA template.
•Alternative conformation adopted by the leader mRNA.
completed
UUU 3’
and blocking sequence 2
•The stalled
Incomplete ribosome is
leader waiting for
peptide tryptophanyl
tRNA.
•The 2:3 pair is
not an attenuator
and is more
stable than the
3:4 pair.
Twostep decoding process for translating nucleic acid sequences in
mRNA into amino acid sequences in proteins
The PhoR/PhoB twocomponent regulatory system in E. coli
In response to low phosphate
concentrations in the
environment and periplasmic
space, a phosphate ion
dissociates from the periplasmic
domain of the sensor protein
PhoR. This causes a
conformational change that
activates a protein kinase
transmitter domain in the
cytosolic region of PhoR. The
activated transmitter domain
transfers an ATP γphosphate to
a histidine in the transmitter
domain. This phosphate is then
transferred to an aspartic acid in
the response regulator PhoB.
Phosphorylated PhoB then
activate transcription from genes
encoding proteins that help the
cell to respond to low phosphate,
including phoA, phoS, phoE,
and ugpB.
Activation of σ 54containing RNA polymerase at glnA promoter by NtrC
•The glnA gene encodes glutamine
synthetase, which synthesizes glutamine
from glutamic acid and ammonia.
• The σ54containing RNA polymerase
binds to the glnA promoter, forming a
(kinase) closed complex, before being activated.
• In response to low levels of glutamine, a
protein kinase called NtrB phosphorylates
dimeric NtrC, which then binds to two
sequence elements (called enhancer)
located at –108 and 140.
• The bound phosphorylated NtrC dimers
interact with the bound σ54polymerase,
causing the intervening DNA to form a
loop.
• The ATPase activity of NtrC then
stimulates the polymerase to unwind the
template strands at the start site, forming
an open complex. Transcription of the
glnA gene can then begin.