Presentation created by:

Assoc. Prof. Aneliya Manukova, PhD

Department of Electronics
University of Ruse „Angel Kanchev”
An amplifier is used to increase the amplitude of a signal
waveform, without changing other parameters of the waveform
such as frequency or wave shape. They are one of the most
commonly used circuits in electronics and perform a variety of
functions in a great many electronic systems.
The symbol gives no detail of the type of amplifier described, but
the direction of signal flow can be assumed (as flowing from left
to right of the diagram). Amplifiers of different types are also
often described in system or block diagrams by name.

The general symbol for an amplifier is

Audio frequency amplifiers are used to amplify Radio Frequency amplifiers are tuned amplifiers in
signals in the range of human hearing, which the frequency of operation is governed by a
approximately 20Hz to 20kHz, although some Hi-Fi tuned circuit. This circuit may or may not, be adjustable
audio amplifiers extend this range up to around depending on the purpose of the amplifier. Bandwidth
100kHz, whilst other audio amplifiers may restrict also depends on use and may be relatively wide, or
the high frequency limit to 15kHz or less. narrow. Input resistance is generally low, as is gain.

They operate at a frequency lower than that of the

received radio signal, but higher than the audio or
video signals eventually produced by the system. Ultrasonic amplifiers are a type of audio amplifier
The frequency at which I.F. amplifiers operate and handling frequencies from around 20kHz up to about
the bandwidth of the amplifier depends on the type of 100kHz; they are usually designed for specific
equipment. For example, in AM radio receivers the purposes such as ultrasonic cleaning, metal fatigue
I.F. amplifiers operate at around 470kHz and their detection, ultrasound scanning, remote control systems
bandwidth is normally 10kHz (465 kHz to 475kHz), etc. Each type will operate over a fairly narrow band of
while TV commonly uses 6Mhz bandwidth for the I.F. frequencies within the ultrasonic range.
signal at around 30 to 40MHz, and in radar a band
width of 10 MHz may be used.
Wideband amplifiers must have a constant gain Video amplifiers are a level of the signal and are used
from DC to several tens of MHz. They are used in specifically for signals special type of wide band
measuring equipment such as oscilloscopes etc. amplifier that also preserve the DC that are to be
where there is a need to accurately measure signals applied to CRTs or other video equipment. The video
over a wide range of frequencies. Because of their signal carries all the picture information in TV, video
extremely wide bandwidth, gain is low. and radar systems. The bandwidth of video amplifiers
depends on use. In TV receivers it extends from 0Hz
(DC) to 6MHz and is wider still in radar.

Buffer amplifiers are a commonly encountered,

specialised amplifier type that can be found within any
of the above categories, they are placed between two
other circuits to prevent the operation of one circuit
DC amplifiers are used to amplify DC (0Hz) voltages
affecting the operation of the other. Often buffer
or very low frequency signals where the DC level of
amplifiers have a gain of one, i.e. they do not actually
the signal is important. They are common in many
amplify, so that their output is the same amplitude as
electrical control systems and measuring
their input, but buffer amplifiers have very high input
instruments.
impedance and low output impedance and can
therefore be used as an impedance matching device..
 Gain
 The gain of an amplifier is a measure of the "Amplification" of an amplifier, i.e. how much it increases the
amplitude of a signal.
 More precisely it is the ratio of the output signal amplitude to the input signal amplitude, and is given the

symbol "A".
 It can be calculated for voltage (Av), current (Ai) or power (Ap), when the subscript letter after the A is in

lower case this refers to small signal conditions, and when the subscript is in capitals it refers to DC
conditions.

The gain of an amplifier is governed, not only by the

components (transistors etc.) used, but also by the way
they are interconnected within the amplifier circuit
 Frequency Response
 Amplifiers do not have the same gain at all
frequencies.
 An amplifier designed for audio frequency

amplification will amplify signals with a frequency

of less than about 20kHz but will not amplify
signals having higher frequencies.
 An amplifier designed for radio frequencies will

amplify a band of frequencies above about 100

kHz but will not amplify the lower frequency audio
signals.
 In each case the amplifier has a particular

frequency response, being a band of frequencies

where it provides adequate amplification, and
excluding frequencies above and below this band,
where the amplification is less than adequate.
 Bandwidth
 An important piece of information that can be obtained from
a frequency response curve is the Bandwidth of the amplifier.
 This refers to the ‘band’ of frequencies for which the

amplifier has a useful gain. Outside this useful band the gain
of the amplifier is considered to be insufficient compared with
the gain at the centre of the bandwidth.
 Bandwidth specified for voltage amplifiers is the range of

frequencies for which the amplifier’s gain is greater than

0.707 of the maximum gain.
 The useful bandwidth would be described as extending to

those frequencies at which the voltage gain is −3dB down

compared to the gain at the mid band frequency.
 Output Impedance
Input Impedance  The output impedance of an amplifier is not solely
 The word impedance means opposition to AC dependent on the actual components connected within the
current flow. At 0 Hz, (that is, DC) impedance output of an amplifier.
 It is an ‘apparent’ impedance and can best be
(symbol Z) is the same as resistance (R), but at
frequencies other than 0Hz impedance and demonstrated as being responsible for a fall in signal
resistance are not the same. voltage at the output terminals of an amplifier, when a
 The input impedance of an amplifier is the effective current is drawn from the output terminals.
 The more current drawn from the output terminals, the
impedance between the input terminals. "Effective"
means that the impedance is not necessarily just that greater the reduction in output signal voltage. The effect is
of the amplifier components actually connected that of an impedance or resistance in series with the
across the input terminals, but is the impedance output terminals.
experienced as the amount of current able to flow
into the input terminals for a given signal voltage
applied at a particular frequency.
 Input Impedance is influenced by a number of

factors including the frequency of the applied signal,

the gain of the amplifier, any signal feedback used
and even what is connected to the output of the
amplifier.
 Calculation of gain in multi stage amplifiers
 When connecting voltage amplifiers in cascade, the input signal to the second stage should ideally be
100% of the output voltage of stage 1, i.e. have as high a voltage amplitude as possible.
 This will occur if the output impedance of the first amplifier is a much lower value than the input

impedance of the second amplifier.

 This allows most of the voltage available at the output terminal (point A) to be developed across the

input impedance of the second amplifier (and therefore across its input terminals) rather than across the
first amplifier’s output impedance.
If the second amplifier is a current amplifier however, it will be necessary that as much current as

possible flows into its input terminals. In this case therefore, the input impedance of the second
amplifier must be low.

In calculating the overall gain of a multi

stage amplifier, the overall gain should be
equal to the product of the individual gains
of each amplifier.
 Phase Shift
 Phase shift in an amplifier is the amount (if any) by which the output signal is delayed or advanced in phase
with respect to the input signal expressed in degrees.
 If a phase shift of 90 degrees occurs then the peak of the output wave occurs one quarter of a cycle after the

peak of input wave. Such a shift can be caused by the effect of components such as resistors inductors and
capacitors in the amplifier circuit.
 The action of the transistor in a single stage amplifier can cause 180 degrees of phase shift, and therefore the

input and output will be in "anti-phase." Whether a phase shift in an amplifier is important depends on the
purpose of the amplifier.
 Feedback
 Feedback is the process of taking a proportion of an amplifier’s output signal and feeding it back into
the input. Feedback can be arranged to either increase or decrease the input signal. When feedback is
used to increase the input signal it is called POSITIVE FEEDBACK, and when the effect of the
feedback reduces the input signal it is called NEGATIVE FEEDBACK.
 POSITIVE FEEDBACK occurs when the feedback signal is in phase with the input signal, this

increases the amplitude of the input and hence the output signal, effectively increasing the gain of the
amplifier.
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK occurs when the feedback signal is in anti-phase with the input signal,

effectively reducing the amplitude of the input and hence also the output signal. This causes a reduction
in gain.
 Logarithmic Scales
Response curves normally use a logarithmic scale of frequency, plotted along the horizontal x-axis.
This allows for a wider range of frequency to be accommodated than if a linear scale were used.
 Logarithmic Scales
 The vertical y-axis is marked in linear divisions but using the logarithmic units of decibels allowing for
a much greater range within the same distance.
 The logarithmic unit used is the decibel, which is one tenth of a Bel, a unit originally designed for

measuring losses of telephone cables, but as the Bel is generally too large for most electronic uses, the
decibel (dB) is the unit of choice. Apart from providing a more convenient scale the decibel has another
advantage in displaying audio information, the human ear also responds to the loudness of sounds in a
manner similar to a logarithmic scale, so using a decibel scale gives a more meaningful representation
of audio levels.
Logarithmic Scales
Logarithmic Scales

 An advantage of using dBs to indicate the gain of amplifiers is that in multi stage amplifiers, the total
gain of a series of amplifiers expressed in simple ratios, would be the product of the individual gains,
Av1 x Av2 x Av3 x Av4 ...etc.
 This can produce some very large numbers, but the total of individual gains expressed in dBs would
be the sum of the individual gains:
Av1 + Av2 + Av3 + Av4 ...etc.
Likewise losses due to circuits such as filters, attenuators etc. are subtracted to give the total loss.

This can produce some very large numbers, but the total
of individual gains expressed in dBs would
Commonly Encountered dB Values

0dB The reference level to which all +dB and

−dB figures refer.
±1dB The least noticeable change in audio
levels, also used for the limits of bandwidth on
high quality audio amplifiers.
−3dB Commonly used for limits of bandwidth in
amplifiers, indicating the points where the
output voltage has fallen to 0.707 of the
maximum (mid band) output or half the
maximum mid band power, (Half the VOLTAGE
amplitude is −6dB).
−20 dB Reduces amplitude of signal voltage by
10 times (often quoted on signal generator
attenuators. )
−40dB Reduces amplitude of signal voltage by
100 times