CAD/CAM

UNIT-1
Course objectives:
To provide an overview of how computers are being used in design,
development of manufacturing plans and manufacture. To understand the
need for integration of CAD and CAM.

Course Outcomes:
• Understand geometric transformation techniques in CAD.
• Develop mathematical models to represent curves and surfaces.
• Model engineering components using solid modeling techniques.
• Develop programs for CNC to manufacture industrial
components.
• To understand the application of computers in various aspects of
Manufacturing viz., Design, Proper planning, Manufacturing cost, Layout
& Material Handling system.
 SYLLABUS
UNIT-I
Fundamentals of CAD, CAM, Automation , design process, Application of
computers for design, Benefits of CAD, Computer configuration for CAD
applications, Computer peripherals for CAD, Design workstation, Graphic
terminal, CAD software- definition of system software and application software
,CAD database and structure.

Geometric Modeling: 3-D wire frame modeling, wire frame entities and their
definitions, Interpolation and approximation of curves, Concept of parametric
and non-parametric representation of curves, Curve fitting techniques,
definitions of cubic spline, Bezier, and Bspline.
• Computer-aided design (CAD) is the use of
computer systems to assist in the creation,
modification, analysis, or optimization of a
design.
• Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) is the
use of computer systems to plan, manage, and
control the operations of a manufacturing
plant through direct or indirect computer
interface with plant’s resources.
 Need for CAD/CAM

• To increase productivity of the designer

•To improve quality of the design
•To improve communications
•To create a manufacturing database
•To create and test toolpaths and optimize them
•To help in production scheduling and MRP models
•To have effective shop floor control
 How do CAD/CAM systems work?
• Developing NC code requires an understanding of:
1. Part geometry
2. Tooling
3. Process plans
4. Tolerances
5. Fixturing (fixed position)
• Most CAD/CAM systems provide access to:
1. Part geometry
2. Tooling
Product Development Cycle
The Design Process : Then and Now

Before CAD After CAD

CAD/CAM and the new Environment
 CAD/CAM Support
• AutoCAD
• Pro Engineer
• MasterCAM
Components of CAD/CAM Systems
• Major component is hardware
and software allowing shape
manipulation
• Hardware includes graphic
devices and their peripherals for
input and output operations
• Software includes packages that
manipulate or analyze shapes
according to user interaction
Components of CAD/CAM/CAE Systems
 Hardware Components
• Graphic device is composed of a display
processing unit, a display device, and one or more
input devices
• Input devices:
– Mouse
– Space ball
– Data tablet with a puck or stylus
– Keyboard
• Output Devices:
– Plotters
– Color laser printers
 cathode ray tube
• The cathode ray tube (CRT), invented by German physicist Karl Ferdinand
• Braun in 1897, is an evacuated glass envelope containing an electron gun (a
• source of electrons) and a fluorescent screen, usually with internal or external
• means to accelerate and deflect the electrons. When electrons strike the
• fluorescent screen, light is emitted.
• The electron beam is deflected and modulated in a way which causes it to
• display an image on the screen. The image may represent electrical
• waveforms (oscilloscope), pictures (television, computer monitor), echoes of
• aircraft detected by radar, etc.

• A cathode ray tube (CRT) contains four basic parts:

• • electron gun,
• • focusing and accelerating systems,
• • deflecting systems, and
• • evacuated glass envelope with a phosphorescent screen that glows
• visibly when struck by the electron beam.
Cathode ray
tube employing
electromagnetic
focus and
deflection
• An electron gun consists of a series of electrodes producing a narrow beam of
high-velocity electrons.
• Electrons are released from the indirectly heated cathode.
• The intensity of the beam is controlled by variation of the negative potential of
the cylindrical control grid surrounding the cathode. This electrode is called the
modulator.
• The control grid has a hole in the front to allow passage of the electron beam.
• The electrons are accelerated and focused.

• Focusing:
• electrostatic
• Electromagnetic
• Deflection:
• electrostatic
• electromagnetic
• Two or more electrodes at • The focusing effect is controlled
different potentials are used to by varying the potential of the
focus the electron beam. focusing electrode.
• The electrostatic field set up • Due to the focusing action
between the electrodes causes electrons of the gun bombard the
the beam to converge. screen of the cathode ray tube at
the same point.
Hardware Configuration #1
 Hardware Configuration #1
Requires a big initial
investment for hardware
and software
Slow system response times

Maintenance of
mainframe is
expensive Updating operating
systems is difficult
Hardware Configuration #2
 Hardware Configuration #2

Widely used; trend

Engineering
toward distributed
workstations connected
computing
in a networked
environment

Initial investment is
User can choose smaller than
appropriate configuration #1
workstation on a task
by task basis
 Hardware Configuration #3

Popular with small Same as the second, except

companies engineering workstations are
replaced by personal
computers running Microsoft
Windows

Popular with companies

whose main purpose is to Distinction between
generate drawings with configurations 2 and 3
their CAD/CAM/CAE becoming blurred as
systems personal computers
evolve
 Software Components
• CAD software allows the designer to create
and manipulate a shape interactively and
store it
• CAM software plans, manages and controls
the operations of a manufacturing site
• CAE software analyzes design geometry,
allowing designer to study product behavior
 Windows-Based CAD Systems
• User interface is similar to Windows
• Employs component technology, in which best
key software elements are selected from
among available software
• Use object-oriented technology, which
modularizes the program
• Capable of either parametric or variational
modeling
• Internet support
 CAD/CAM Software
• Software allows the human user to turn a hardware configuration
into a powerful design and manufacturing system. CAD/CAM
software falls into two broad categories,2-D and 3-D, based on the
number of dimensions are called 2-D representations of 3-D
objects is inherently confusing. Equally problem has been the
inability of manufacturing personnel to properly read and
interpret complicated 2-D representations of objects. 3-D software
permits the parts to be viewed with the 3-D planes-height, width,
and depth-visible. The trend in CAD/CAM is toward 3-D
representation of graphic images. Such representation
approximate the actual shape and appearance of the object to be
produced; therefore, they are easier to read and understand.
 Applications of CAD/CAM
• The emergence of CAD/CAM has had a major impact on manufacturing, by
standardizing product development and by reducing design effort, tryout, and
prototype work; it has made possible significantly reduced costs and improved
productivity.
• Some typical applications of CAD/CAM are as follows: Programming for NC, CNC, and
industrial robots;
• Design of dies and molds for casting, in which, for example, shrinkage allowances are
preprogrammed; Design of tools and fixtures and EDM electrodes;
• Quality control and inspection----for instance, coordinate-measuring machines
programmed on a CAD/CAM workstation; Process planning and scheduling.
• AutoCAD supports 2-D drafting and 3-D wire-frame models. The system is designed as a
single-user CAD package. The drawing elements are lines, polylines of any width, arcs,
circles, faces, and solids.
• There are many ways to define a drawing element. For example, a circle can be defined
by center and its radius, three points, and two end points of its diameter. The system
always prompts the user for all options.
• Annotation and dimensioning are also supported. Text and dimension symbols can be
placed on anywhere on the drawing, at any angle, and at any size. A variety of fonts and
styles are also available.
 Benefits of CAD/CAM:

• To increase the productivity ·

• To improve the quality of the design ·
• To uniform design standards ·
• To create a manufacturing data base ·
• To eliminate inaccuracies caused by hand-
copying of drawings and inconsistency
between drawings
Geometric
Modeling
Two-Dimensional Graphics: - In order to draw 2-D images
on the display, there must be at least two functions or
subroutines available in the basic graphics package. The
first is a MOVE (X.Y) subroutine, which moves the pen to an
(x, y) location without drawing (with the pen up case of the
plotter, or the beam off in the case of a CRT). The second
command is the LINE(X,Y) subroutine, which moves the
beam to an (x, y) location with the pen down, thus drawing
a line. Alternative specific instances of these commands
appear in various graphics packages.
Three-Dimensional Graphics: - In the case of three-
dimensional graphics, a z coordinate is added to all points.
Rotations must deal with angles around the x, y, and z axes
instead of just the z axis. The following sections will discuss
operations necessary to start with a three-dimensionally
fined object, place it in space in the correct location, and
draw it on a two-dimensional output device. The concepts
involve three-dimensional transformations, perspective and
orthographic projections, viewing transforms, and window-
to-viewport mapping, all in three dimensions
 TRANSFORMATION OF GEOMETRY

• Translation
• Scaling
• Rotation
• Shearing
 TRANSLATION
Moving drawing or model across the screen is called translation. This is
accomplished by adding to the co-ordinates of each corner point the
distance through which the drawing is to be moved (translated). If
position by adding 4 units to X co-ordinate values and 3 units to Y
coordinate values. In general, in order to translate drawing by (TX , TY )
every point X, Y will
be replaced by a point X1 , Y1 where
X1 = X + TX
Y1 = Y + TY
 SCALING
Changing the dimensions of window and view port, it is
possible to alter the size of drawings. This technique is not
satisfactory in all cases. A drawing can be made bigger by
increasing the distance between the points of the drawing. In
general, this can be done by multiplying the co-ordinates of
the drawing by an enlargement or reduction factor called
scaling factor, and the operation is called scaling.
In general, the scaling matrix can be represented as:
 ROTATION
Another useful transformation is the rotation of a
drawing about a pivot point. Consider
Fig. Point P1 (4, 2) can be seen being rotated about the
origin through an angle, θ =
45°, in the anti-clockwise direction to position P2. The
co-ordinates of P2 can be obtained
by multiplying the co-ordinates of P1 by the matrix:
 SHEARING
A shearing transformation produces distortion of an object or an
entire image. There are two types of shears: X-shear and Y-shear.
A Y-shear transforms the point (X, Y) to the point
An X-shear transforms the point (X, Y) to (X1,
(X1, Y1) by a factor Sh1, where Y1), where
X1 = X X1 = X + Sh2.Y , Y1 = Y
Y1 = Sh1. X + Y Sh2 is the shear factor
Fig. shows Y shear applied to a drawing
 Classification of wireframe entities

Wire
frame
entities

A drawing is created by an
assembly of points, lines,
Analytical Synthetic
arcs, circles. In computer
curves curves
graphics also drawings are
created in a similar
manner. Each of these is
called an entity. The Line
drawing entities that a circle
Cubic spline
user may find in a typical arc
Bezier
CAD package ellipse
B-spline
polygon
rectangle
point
 Curve
representation

Non –
Parametric
parametric

Explicit
Implicit
 GEOMETRIC MODELING
i. Wire frame modeling
ii. Surface modeling
iii. Solid modeling
 1. Wireframe models
There are three types of geometric models,, wireframes,,
surfaces and solids..
❖ Typically, a wireframe model consists of a finite set of points
(vertices), connected in pairs by straight lines (edges), or arcs,
circles, conics, and curves, so that the three dimensional form of
a solid object can be visualized.
❖ The major advantage of wireframe modeling is its simplicity
to construct. It does not require as much computer time and
memory as does surface or solid modeling. Wireframe modeling
is considered a natural extension of traditional methods of
drafting.
❖ The disadvantages of wireframe models are manifolds.
Primarily, wireframe models are usually ambiguous
representations of real objects and rely heavily on human
interpretation
• Models of complex designs having many edges
become very confusing and perhaps even
impossible to interpret. Moreover, as shown in
Figure , it is often difficult to display objects
with curve surfaces using wireframe.
 DESIGN OF CURVED SHAPES
A component can be designed using the curves and shapes which
can be mathematically described e.g. arc, circle, conics, ellipsoid,
hyperbolic parabolic, sphere, and cone, cylinder, linear, conical -
and circular swept surfaces etc. However very often the designer
starts with specifying a few points which roughly describe the
shape. Two approaches are available to designers to model curves
and surfaces in such cases:
interpolation and approximation.
 Bezier Curves
Parametric equation of Bezier curve

where P(u) is the position vector of a point on the curve, Pi

are control points, and Bi,n are the Bernstein polynomials
(blending functions for the curve).
Pierre Bezier Paul de Casteljau
(1910-1999) (1930)
Renault Citroën
and C(n,i) are the binomial coefficients:

In an expanded form:

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 Bezier Curves
For n = 3:

Or, in matrix form:

Bezier geometric matrix Bezier basis matrix

GB MB

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 Bezier Curves
P1
P2

P0
t=0 Pk P3
t=1

General Characteristics Bezier vs. Hermite Cubic Spline

•The Bezier curve is defined by n+1 points •The Bezier curve is controlled by data
•Only P0 and Pn+1 lie on the curve points. No derivatives
•The curve is tangent to the first and last polygon •The order is variable: n+1 points define
segments nth order curve . -> higher order
•The curve shape tends to follow the polygon shape. continuity
•Convex hull property.
•The sum of Bi,n functions is always equal to unity.

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 Bezier Curves

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 B-spline Curves

The B-spline curve defined by n+1 control points Pi consists of n – 2 curve

segments and is given by:

where Ni,k(u) are the B-spline (blending or basis) functions. The parameter k
controls the degree (k-1) of the B-spline curve.

Local control

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 B-spline Curves

The B-spline curve defined by n+1 control points Pi consists of n – 2 curve

segments and is given by:

where Ni,k(u) are the B-spline (blending or basis) functions. The parameter k
controls the degree (k-1) of the B-spline curve.

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 B-spline Curves
Basis Functions
• The function Ni,k determines how strongly control point Pi influences
the curve at t. Its value is a real number – 0.25, 0.5…

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 B-SPLINES
• In the mathematical subfield of numerical analysis, a B-spline,
or basis spline, is a spline function that has
minimal support with respect to a given degree, smoothness,
and domain partition. Any spline function of given degree can
be expressed as a linear combination of B-splines of that
degree. Cardinal B-splines have knots that are equidistant
from each other. B-splines can be used for curve-
fitting and numerical differentiation of experimental data.
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