• TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

• Knowledge representation and reasoning (KR, KRR) is the part of Artificial intelligence which
concerned with AI agents thinking and how thinking contributes to intelligent behavior of agents.
• It is responsible for representing information about the real world so that a computer can
understand and can utilize this knowledge to solve the complex real world problems
1 .Declarative Knowledge:
• Declarative knowledge is to know about something.
• It includes concepts, facts, and objects.
• It is also called descriptive knowledge and expressed in declarative sentences.
• It is simpler than procedural language.
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

• 2. Procedural Knowledge
• It is also known as imperative knowledge.
• Procedural knowledge is a type of knowledge which is responsible for
knowing how to do something.
• It can be directly applied to any task.
• It includes rules, strategies, procedures, agendas, etc.
• Procedural knowledge depends on the task on which it can be applied.
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

• 3. Meta-knowledge:
• Knowledge about the other types of knowledge is called Meta-knowledge.
• 4. Heuristic knowledge:
• Heuristic knowledge is representing knowledge of some experts in a filed
or subject.
• Heuristic knowledge is rules of thumb based on previous experiences,
awareness of approaches, and which are good to work but not guaranteed.
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE

• 5. Structural knowledge:
• Structural knowledge is basic knowledge to problem-solving.
• It describes relationships between various concepts such as
kind of, part of, and grouping of something.
• It describes the relationship that exists between concepts or
objects.
knowledge acquisition is the process of locating, collecting, and refining
knowledge for the development of knowledge based systems .It is the transfer of
expertise from a person to the system.
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

• Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made
by propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false. It is
a technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical form.
• Example
a) It is Monday.  
b) The Sun rises from West (False proposition)  
c) 3+3= 7(False proposition)  
d) 5 is a prime number.  
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

• Propositional logic is also called Boolean logic as it works on 0 and 1.

• In propositional logic, we use symbolic variables to represent the logic, and we can use any
symbol for a representing a proposition, such A, B, C, P, Q, R, etc.
• Propositions can be either true or false, but it cannot be both.
• The propositions and connectives are the basic elements of the propositional logic.
• Connectives can be said as a logical operator which connects two sentences.
• A proposition formula which is always true is called tautology, and it is also called a valid
sentence.
• A proposition formula which is always false is called Contradiction.
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

• Types:
1. Atomic Propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a single proposition
symbol. These are the sentences which must be either true or false.
Example: a) 2+2 is 4, it is an atomic proposition as it is a true fact.  
b) "The Sun is cold" is also a proposition as it is a false fact.   

2. Compound propositions Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler

or atomic propositions, using parenthesis and logical connectives.
Example: a) "It is raining today, and street is wet."  
b) "Ankit is a doctor, and his clinic is in Mumbai."   
PROPOSITIONAL LOGIC

Limitations of Propositional logic:

• We cannot represent relations like ALL, some, or none with propositional logic.
Example:
• All the girls are intelligent.
• Some apples are sweet.

• Propositional logic has limited expressive power.

• In propositional logic, we cannot describe statements in terms of their properties or
logical relationships.
FIRST ORDER LOGIC (FOL)

Limitations of Propositional logic:

• In propositional logic, we can only represent the facts, which are either true or false
• PL is not sufficient to represent the complex sentences or natural language statements. 
• Consider the following sentence, which we cannot represent using PL logic.
• "Some humans are intelligent", or
• "Sachin likes cricket."
• To represent the above statements, PL logic is not sufficient, so we required some more
powerful logic, such as first-order logic.
FIRST ORDER LOGIC (FOL)

• First-order logic is another way of knowledge representation in artificial intelligence. It is

an extension to propositional logic.
• FOL is sufficiently expressive to represent the natural language statements in a concise
way.
• First-order logic is also known as Predicate logic or First-order predicate logic.
• First-order logic is a powerful language that develops information about the objects in a
more easy way and can also express the relationship between those objects.
FIRST ORDER LOGIC (FOL)

• Atomic sentences:
• Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These sentences are
formed from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a sequence of terms.
• We can represent atomic sentences as Predicate (term1, term2, ......, term n).
• Example: Ravi and Ajay are brothers: => Brothers(Ravi, Ajay).
                Chinky is a cat: => cat (Chinky).
FIRST ORDER LOGIC (FOL)

• Complex Sentences:
• Complex sentences are made by combining atomic sentences using connectives.

Connectives ∧, ∨, ¬, ⇒, ⇔

• First-order logic statements can be divided into two parts:

• Subject: Subject is the main part of the statement.
• Predicate: A predicate can be defined as a relation, which binds two atoms together in a
statement.
FIRST ORDER LOGIC (FOL)

• Consider the statement: "x is an integer.", it consists of two parts, the first part x is the
subject of the statement and second part "is an integer," is known as a predicate.