Critical Thinking Skills

(FIA 0014)

Lecture 8: Categorical Logic

• In this chapter we introduce a simple yet
powerful technique for testing the validity of
simple arguments made up of categorical
statements.
 Categorical Statements
• A categorical statement makes a claim about the relationship
between two or more categories or classes of things.
• In this chapter we focus on what are called standard-form
categorical statements, which have one of the following four
forms:
– All S are P. ( Example: All Democrats are liberals.)
– No S are P. ( Example: No Democrats are liberals.)
– Some S are P. ( Example: Some Democrats are liberals.)
– Some S are not P. ( Example: Some Democrats are not
liberals.)
 Categorical Statements
• A categorical statement makes a claim about the relationship
between two or more categories or classes of things.
• In this chapter we focus on what are called standard-form
categorical statements, which have one of the following four
forms:
– All S are P. ( Example: All Democrats are liberals.)
– No S are P. ( Example: No Democrats are liberals.)
– Some S are P. ( Example: Some Democrats are liberals.)
– Some S are not P. ( Example: Some Democrats are not
liberals.)
 Categorical Statements
In summary, the four kinds of standard-form categorical
statements are diagrammed as follows:

All S are P.
Categorical Statements

No S are P.
Categorical Statements

Some S are P.
Categorical Statements

Some S are not P.

 Standard-form categorical
Standard-form categorical statements have four basic parts:

• They all begin with the word all, no, or some. These words are
called quantifiers because they are used to express a quantity or
a number.

• They all have a subject term —a word or phrase that names a

class and that serves as the grammatical subject of the sentence.
In the four statement forms listed above, the subject term is
represented by S.
 Standard-form categorical

• They all have a predicate term —a word or phrase that names

a class and that serves as the subject complement of the
sentence. In the statement forms listed above, the predicate
term is represented by P.

• They all have a copula, or linking verb, which is either are or

are not. The copula serves to link, or join, the subject term with
the predicate term.
Translation of Standard-form Categorical Statements
When translating into standard categorical form, keep in mind
the following tips:

• Tip 1: Rephrase all nonstandard subject and predicate terms

so that they refer to classes.
• Tip 2: Rephrase all nonstandard verbs so that the statement
includes the linking verb are or are not.
• Tip 3: Fill in any unexpressed quantifiers.
• Tip 4: Translate singular statements as all or no statements.
• Tip 5: Translate stylistic variants into the appropriate
categorical form.
Categorical Syllogisms
 Categorical Syllogisms

• A categorical syllogism is a three-line deductive

argument in which all three statements in the
argument are categorical statements.

• A simple way to test the validity of categorical

syllogisms is to use Venn diagrams, in which
overlapping circles represent relationships
among classes.
 Validity of Categorical Syllogism
• The Venn diagram technique for checking the validity
of categorical syllogisms involves six basic steps:

Step 1: Translate all statements in the argument (if

necessary) into standard-form categorical statements.

Step 2: Draw and label three overlapping circles, one

for each term (class name) in the argument, with the
two circles for the conclusion at the bottom.
 Validity of Categorical Syllogism
Step 3: Use shading to represent the information in all or no
statements. To diagram statements of the form “All S are P,” shade
that portion of the S circle that does not overlap with the P circle.
To diagram statements of the form “No S are P,” shade that
portion of the S circle that overlaps with the P circle.

Use X ’s to represent the information in some statements. To

diagram statements of the form “Some S are P, ” place an X in that
portion of the S circle that overlaps with the P circle. To diagram
statements of the form “Some S are not P,” place an X in that
portion of the S circle that does not overlap with the P circle.
 Validity of Categorical Syllogism

• Step 4: Diagram the two premises. (No marks should

be entered for the conclusion.) If the argument
contains one all or no premise and one some
premise, diagram the all or no premise first. If the
argument contains two some or two all or no
premises, diagram either premise first.
 Validity of Categorical Syllogism
• Step 5: When placing an X in a two-part area, if one
part of the area has been shaded, place the X in the
unshaded part. If neither part of the area has been
shaded, place the X on the line separating the two
parts.

• Step 6: Look to see if the completed diagram

contains all the information presented in the
conclusion. If it does, the argument is valid. If it
does not, the argument is invalid.
 Example of Categorical Syllogisms
• All snakes are reptiles.
• All reptiles are cold-blooded animals.
• So, all snakes are cold-blooded animals.

• First we draw and label the three circles, placing the

circles for the conclusion at the bottom:
 Example of Categorical Syllogisms
Next we diagram the first premise, which states that all
snakes are reptiles. We represent this information by
shading the area of the Snakes circle that does not
overlap with the Reptiles circle:
 Example of Categorical Syllogisms
• Next we diagram the second premise, which states
that all reptiles are cold-blooded animals. We
represent this claim by shading that part of the
Reptiles circle that does not overlap with the Cold-
blooded animals circle:
 Example of Categorical Syllogisms

• Finally, we look to see if the information contained in the

conclusion is depicted in the diagram. The conclusion tells us
that all snakes are cold-blooded animals. This means that the
part of the Snakes circle that does not overlap with the Cold-
blooded animals circle should be completely shaded.
Inspection of the diagram shows that this is indeed the case.
So, the argument is valid.
 Example of Categorical Syllogisms
Venn diagrams can also show when a categorical syllogism is
invalid. Here is one example:
• All painters are artists.
• Some magicians are artists.
• So, some magicians are painters.

• First we draw and label the three circles:

 Example of Categorical Syllogisms
• Because the first premise begins with all and the second
premise begins with some, we diagram the first premise first.
The first premise states that all painters are artists. To depict
this claim, we shade that part of the Painters circle that does
not overlap with the Artists circle:
 Example of Categorical Syllogisms
• Next we enter the information of the second premise, we
place an X in that portion of the Magicians circle that overlaps
with the Artists circle. That area, however, is divided into two
parts (the areas marked “1” and “2”), and we have no
information that warrants placing the X in one of these areas
rather than the other. In such cases, we place the X precisely
on the line between the two sections:
 Example of Categorical Syllogisms
• The X on the line means that we have no way of knowing from
the information given whether the magician-who-is-an-artist
is also a magician-who-is a-painter.
 Example of Categorical Syllogisms
• The conclusion states that some magicians are painters. This
means that there should be an X that is definitely in the area
where the Magicians and Painters circles overlap. There is an
X in the Magicians circle, but it dangles on the line between
the Artists circle and the Painters circle. We don’t know
whether it is inside or outside the Painters circle.
Consequently, the argument is invalid.
 Sample Question
Use Venn diagrams to test the validity of the
following arguments.

• No scientists are graduates.

• All physicists are scientists.
• So, some physicists are not graduates.

• Some nurses are coffee-lovers.

• All nurses are hospital staffs.
• So, some hospital staffs are coffee-lovers.
The End