Digital Communications

Lecture 2
Last time, we talked about:

 Important features of digital communication

systems
 Some basic concepts and definitions such as
as signal classification, spectral density,
random process, linear systems and signal
bandwidth.

Lecture 2 2
Today, we are going to talk about:

 The first important step in any DCS:

 Transforming the information source to a form

compatible with a digital system

Lecture 2 3
 Formatting and transmission of baseband signal

Digital info.

Textual Format

Analog Sample Quantize Encode modulate

info.

Pulse
Bit stream waveforms Channel
Format
Analog
info. Low-pass
Decode Demodulate/
filter Receive
Textual Detect
sink
info.

Digital info.

Lecture 2 4
Format analog signals
 To transform an analog waveform into a form
that is compatible with a digital
communication system, the following steps
are taken:
1. Sampling
2. Quantization and encoding
3. Baseband transmission

Lecture 2 5
Sampling

Time domain Frequency domain

xs (t)  x (t)  Xs( f )  X ( f )  X
x(t)
x(t) ( f ) | X ( f )
|

x | X ( f )
(t) |

xs (t)
| X s( f )
|

Lecture 2 6
Aliasing effect

LP filter

Nyquist rate

aliasing

Lecture 2 7
Sampling theorem

Analog
Sampling Pulse amplitude
process m
signal o dulated (PAM)
signal
 Sampling theorem: A bandlimited
signal
with no spectral components beyond ,
can be uniquely determined by values
sampled at
uniform intervals ofrate,
 The sampling is
called Nyquist rate.
Lecture 2 8
 Quantization
 Amplitude quantizing: Mapping samples of a continuous
amplitude waveform to a finite set of amplitudes.

Out

In
Average quantization noise power

Signal peak power

Quantized
values

Signal power to average

quantization noise power

Lecture 2 9
Encoding (PCM)

 A uniform linear quantizer is called Pulse Code

Modulation (PCM).
 Pulse code modulation (PCM): Encoding the quantized
signals into a digital word (PCM word or codeword).
 Each quantized sample is digitally encoded into an l bits
codeword where L in the number of quantization levels
and

Lecture 2 10
 Quantization example
amplitude
x(t)
111 3.1867
110 2.2762
Quant. levels
101 1.3657
100 0.4552

011 -0.4552
boundaries
010 -1.3657

001 - x(nTs): sampled values

2.2762 xq(nTs): quantized values
000 -3.1867
Ts: sampling time
PCM t
codeword 110 110 111 110 100 010 011 100
011 PCM sequence
100
Lecture 2 11
Quantization error
 Quantizing error: The difference between the input and
output of a quantizer
e(t)  xˆ (t) 
Process of quantizing noise x(t)
Qauntizer
Model of quantizing noise
y
q(x)
AGC x(t)
x(t) xˆ (t
xˆ (t )
x
) e(t)

+
e(t)

xˆ (t) 
x(t)
Lecture 2 12
Quantization error …
 Quantizing error:
 Granular or linear errors happen for inputs within the dynamic
range of quantizer
 Saturation errors happen for inputs outside the dynamic
range of quantizer
 Saturation errors are larger than linear errors
 Saturation errors can be avoided by proper tuning of AGC
 Quantization noise variance:


2
  E{[x 
q  e 2 (x)p(x)dx  2
Lin 
2
Sat
q(x)]2 } L / 2 2  2

2 1 ql  2
  p(xl )q l Uniform  q
Lin
2
 12
q. Lin  12
l0

Lecture 2 13
Uniform and non-uniform quant.
 Uniform (linear) quantizing:
 No assumption about amplitude statistics and correlation
properties of the input.
 Not using the user-related specifications
 Robust to small changes in input statistic by not finely tuned to a
specific set of input parameters
 Simple implementation
 Application of linear quantizer:
 Signal processing, graphic and display applications, process
control applications
 Non-uniform quantizing:
 Using the input statistics to tune quantizer parameters
 Larger SNR than uniform quantizing with same number of levels
 Non-uniform intervals in the dynamic range with same quantization
noise variance
 Application of non-uniform quantizer:
 Commonly used for speech

Lecture 2 14
 Non-uniform quantization
 It is achieved by uniformly quantizing the “compressed”
 signal.
At the receiver, an inverse compression characteristic,
called “expansion” is employed to avoid signal distortion.

compression+expansion companding

y
C(x)
x(t) x
y(t) yˆ (t xˆ (t
ˆ
) )
x
y
Compress Qauntize Expand
Channel
ˆ
Transmitter Receiver
Lecture 2 15
Statistics of speech amplitudes
 In speech, weak signals are more frequent than strong
ones.
Probability density function 1.0

0.5

0.0
1.0 2.0 3.0
Normalized magnitude of speech signal
S
 Using equal step sizes (uniform quantizer) gives 
 for weak
signals
low and high  S  for strong  N
 N q q

 signals.
 Adjusting the step size of the quantizer by taking into account the speech statistics
improves the SNR for the input range.

Lecture 2 16
Baseband transmission

 To transmit information through physical

channels, PCM sequences (codewords) are
transformed to pulses (waveforms).
 Each waveform carries a symbol from a set of size M.
 Each transmit symbol represents k  log 2 M bits of
the PCM words.
 PCM waveforms (line codes) are used for binary
symbols (M=2).
 M-ary pulse modulation are used for non-binary
symbols (M>2).

Lecture 2 17
 PCM waveforms

 PCM waveforms category:

 Nonreturn-to-zero (NRZ)  Phase encoded
 Return-to-zero (RZ)  Multilevel binary
+V 1 0 1 1 0 +V 1 0 1 1 0
NRZ-L -V Manchester -V
Unipolar-RZ +V
0 Miller +V
-V
+V +V
Bipolar-RZ 0 Dicode NRZ 0
-V -V
0 0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T

T
Lecture 2 18
PCM waveforms …
 Criteria for comparing and selecting PCM
waveforms:
 Spectral characteristics (power spectral density and
bandwidth efficiency)

Bit synchronization capability

Error detection capability

Interference and noise immunity
 Implementation cost and
complexity

Lecture 2 19
Spectra of PCM waveforms

Lecture 2 20
M-ary pulse modulation

 M-ary pulse modulations category:


M-ary pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM)

M-ary pulse-position modulation (PPM)

M-ary pulse-duration modulation (PDM)
 M-ary PAM is a multi-level signaling where each
symbol takes one of the M allowable amplitude levels,
each representing k  log 2 M bits of PCM words.
 For a given data rate, M-ary PAM (M>2) requires less
bandwidth than binary PCM.
 For a given average pulse power, binary PCM is
easier to detect than M-ary PAM (M>2).

Lecture 2 21
PAM example

Lecture 2 22