ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS

Debre Markos University

Institute of Technology
School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering

Thermodyna
mics: An
Engineering
Approach
5th Edition

3. ENERGY TRANSPORT BY WORK, HEAT& MASS

 Objectives
• Introduce the concept of energy and define its various forms.
• Discuss the nature of internal energy.
• Define the concept of heat and the terminology associated with energy
transfer by heat.
• Discuss the three mechanisms of heat transfer: conduction,
convection, and radiation.
• Define the concept of work, including electrical work and several forms
of mechanical work.
• Introduce the first law of thermodynamics, energy balances, and
mechanisms of energy transfer to or from a system.
• Determine that a fluid flowing across a control surface of a control
volume carries energy across the control surface in addition to any
energy transfer across the control surface that may be in the form of
heat and/or work.
• Define energy conversion efficiencies.
.
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 INTRODUCTION
 If we take the entire room—including the air and the refrigerator (or fan)—as
the system, which is an adiabatic closed system since the room is well-sealed
and well-insulated, the only energy interaction involved is the electrical energy
crossing the system boundary and entering the room.
 As a result of the conversion of electric energy consumed by the device to
heat, the room temperature will rise.

A fan running in a
well-sealed and
well-insulated room
will raise the
temperature of air in
the room.

A refrigerator
operating with its
door open in a well-
sealed and well-
3 insulated room
 FORMS OF ENERGY
 Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical, kinetic,
potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their sum
constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
 Thermodynamics deals only with the change of the total energy.
 Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole with
respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and potential
energies.
 Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular structure of
a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
 Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.

• Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that

a system possesses as a result of its
motion relative to some reference
frame.
• Potential energy, PE: The energy
that a system possesses as a result
4 of its elevation in a gravitational field.
 Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy
per unit mass

Mass flow rate

Potential energy

Potential energy
per unit mass Energy flow rate

Total energy of
a system

Energy of a system
per unit mass

Total energy
per unit mass
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6
 Some Physical Insight to Internal Energy

Sensible energy: The portion

of the internal energy of a
system associated with the
kinetic energies of the
molecules.
Latent energy: The internal
energy associated with the
phase of a system.
Chemical energy: The internal
energy associated with the
atomic bonds in a molecule.
Nuclear energy: The
tremendous amount of energy
associated with the strong
bonds within the nucleus of the
atom itself.

Thermal = Sensible + Latent

7 Internal = Sensible + Latent + Chemical + Nuclear
• The total energy of a system, can
be contained or stored in a system,
and thus can be viewed as the
static forms of energy.
• The forms of energy not stored in a
system can be viewed as the
dynamic forms of energy or as
energy interactions.
• The dynamic forms of energy are
recognized at the system boundary
as they cross it, and they represent
the energy gained or lost by a
system during a process.
• The only two forms of energy
interactions associated with a
closed system are heat transfer
and work.

• The difference between heat transfer and work: An energy interaction is

heat transfer if its driving force is a temperature difference. Otherwise it is
8 work.
More on Nuclear Energy
• The best known fission reaction
involves the split of the uranium atom
(the U-235 isotope) into other elements
and is commonly used to generate
electricity in nuclear power plants (440
of them in 2004, generating 363,000
MW worldwide), to power nuclear
submarines and aircraft carriers, and
even to power spacecraft as well as
building nuclear bombs.
• Nuclear energy by fusion is released
when two small nuclei combine into a
larger one.
• The uncontrolled fusion reaction was
achieved in the early 1950s, but all the
efforts since then to achieve controlled
fusion by massive lasers, powerful
magnetic fields, and electric currents to
generate power have failed.
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 Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device such
as an ideal turbine.
Kinetic and potential energies: The familiar forms of mechanical energy.

Mechanical energy of a
flowing fluid per unit mass

Rate of mechanical energy

of a flowing fluid

Mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow per unit mass

Rate of mechanical energy change of a fluid during incompressible flow

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 ENERGY TRANSFER BY HEAT
Heat: The form of energy that is
transferred between two
systems (or a system and its
surroundings) by virtue of a
temperature difference.

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 Heat transfer
per unit mass
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
is constant
Amount of heat transfer
when heat transfer rate
changes with time

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 Historical Background on Heat
 Kinetic theory: Treats molecules as tiny
balls that are in motion and thus
possess kinetic energy.
 Heat: The energy associated with the
random motion of atoms and molecules.
Heat transfer mechanisms:
 Conduction: The transfer of energy
from the more energetic particles of a
substance to the adjacent less energetic
ones as a result of interaction between
particles.
 Convection: The transfer of energy
between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid that is in motion, and it
involves the combined effects of
conduction and fluid motion.
 Radiation: The transfer of energy due
to the emission of electromagnetic
waves (or photons).
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 ENERGY TRANSFER BY WORK
 Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a distance.
 A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the
system boundaries are all associated with work interactions
 Formal sign convention: Heat transfer to a system and work done by a
system are positive; heat transfer from a system and work done on a system
are negative.
 Alternative to sign convention is to use the subscripts in and out to indicate
direction. This is the primary approach in this text.

Work done per

unit mass

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 Heat vs. Work
 Both are recognized at the boundaries of a
system as they cross the boundaries. That
is, both heat and work are boundary
phenomena.
 Systems possess energy, but not heat or
work.
 Both are associated with a process, not a
state.
 Unlike properties, heat or work has no
meaning at a state.
 Both are path functions (i.e., their
magnitudes depend on the path followed
during a process as well as the end
states).

Properties are point functions

have exact differentials (d ).
Path functions
have inexact
differentials ( )
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 Electrical Work
Electrical work

Electrical power

When potential difference

and current change with time

When potential difference

and current remain constant

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 MECHANICAL FORMS OF WORK
 There are two requirements for a work interaction between a
system and its surroundings to exist:
 there must be a force acting on the boundary.
 the boundary must move.

Work = Force  Distance

When force is not constant

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 A force F acting through
Shaft Work a moment arm r
generates a torque T

This force acts through a distance s

Shaft
work
The power transmitted through the shaft
is the shaft work done per unit time

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 When the length of the spring changes by Spring Work
a differential amount dx under the influence
of a force F, the work done is Substituting and integrating yield

For linear elastic springs, the displacement x1 and x2: the initial and the final
x is proportional to the force applied displacements
k: spring constant (kN/m)

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 Work Associated with the Stretching of
a Liquid Film

Work Done on Elastic Solid Bars

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 Work Done to Raise or to Accelerate a Body
1. The work transfer needed to raise a body is equal to
the change in the potential energy of the body.
2. The work transfer needed to accelerate a body is
equal to the change in the kinetic energy of the body.

Nonmechanical Forms of Work

Electrical work: The generalized force is
the voltage (the electrical potential) and the
generalized displacement is the electrical
charge.
Magnetic work: The generalized force is
the magnetic field strength and the
generalized displacement is the total
magnetic dipole moment.
Electrical polarization work: The
generalized force is the electric field
strength and the generalized displacement
is the polarization of the medium.
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 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
 The first law of thermodynamics (the conservation of energy
principle) provides a sound basis for studying the relationships
among the various forms of energy and energy interactions.
 The first law states that energy can be neither created nor
destroyed during a process; it can only change forms.

The First Law: For

all adiabatic
processes between
two specified states
of a closed system,
the net work done
is the same
regardless of the
nature of the closed
system and the
details of the
process.

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 Energy Balance

The net change (increase

or decrease) in the total
energy of the system
during a process is equal
to the difference between
the total energy entering
and the total energy
leaving the system during
that process.

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 Energy Change of a System, Esystem

Internal, kinetic, and

potential energy changes

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 Mechanisms of Energy Transfer, Ein and Eout

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 Mechanisms of energy • Heat transfer A closed mass
transfer: • Work transfer involves only heat
• Mass flow transfer and work.

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 Examples
1. A rigid tank contains a hot fluid that is cooled while
being stirred by a paddle wheel. Initially, the
internal energy of the fluid is 800 kJ. During the
cooling process, the fluid loses 500 kJ of heat, and
the paddle wheel does 100 kJ of work on the fluid.
Determine the final internal energy of the fluid.
Neglect the energy stored in the paddle wheel.

2. A room is initially at the outdoor temperature of

25°C. Now a large fan that consumes 200 W of
electricity when running is turned on (Fig. 2–49).
The heat transfer rate between the room and the
outdoor air is given as Q= UA(Ti -To) where U =6
W/m2 · °C is the overall heat transfer coefficient. A
=30 m2 is the exposed surface area of the room, and
Ti and To are the indoor and outdoor air
temperatures, respectively. Determine the indoor air
temperature when steady operating conditions are
established.
 ENERGY CONVERSION EFFICIENCIES
Efficiency is one of the most frequently used terms in thermodynamics,
and it indicates how well an energy conversion or transfer process is
accomplished.

Efficiency of a water
heater: The ratio of
the energy delivered
to the house by hot
water to the energy
supplied to the water
heater.

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 Heating value of the fuel: The amount of heat released when a unit amount of
fuel at room temperature is completely burned and the combustion products are
cooled to the room temperature.
Lower heating value (LHV): When the water leaves as a vapor.
Higher heating value (HHV): When the water in the combustion gases is
completely condensed and thus the heat of vaporization is also recovered.

The efficiency of space heating

systems of residential and
commercial buildings is usually
expressed in terms of the annual
fuel utilization efficiency
(AFUE), which accounts for the
combustion efficiency as well as
other losses such as heat losses
to unheated areas and start-up
and cooldown losses.

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 Overall efficiency of a power plant

• Generator: A device that

converts mechanical energy to
electrical energy.
• Generator efficiency: The ratio
of the electrical power output to
the mechanical power input.
• Thermal efficiency of a power
plant: The ratio of the net
electrical power output to the
rate of fuel energy input.

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• Using energy-efficient appliances
conserve energy.
• It helps the environment by
reducing the amount of pollutants
emitted to the atmosphere during
the combustion of fuel.
• The combustion of fuel produces
• carbon dioxide, causes global
warming
• nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons, cause smog
• carbon monoxide, toxic
• sulfur dioxide, causes acid
rain.

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 Efficiencies of Mechanical and Electrical Devices
Mechanical efficiency

The effectiveness of the conversion process between

the mechanical work supplied or extracted and the
mechanical energy of the fluid is expressed by the
pump efficiency and turbine efficiency,

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 Pump
efficiency

Generator
efficiency

Pump-Motor
overall efficiency

Turbine-Generator overall efficiency

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 Example
The water in a large lake is to be used to generate electricity by the installation of a
hydraulic turbine–generator at a location where the depth of the water is 50 m. Water
is to be supplied at a rate of 5000 kg/s. If the electric power generated is measured to
be 1862 kW and the generator efficiency is 95 percent, determine (a) the overall
efficiency of the turbine– generator, (b) the mechanical efficiency of the turbine, and
(c) the shaft power supplied by the turbine to the generator.

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