PHYSICS PROJECT

ISC 2018

Avinav Agarwal
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Primarily I would thank God for being able to complete this project
with success. Then I would like to express my special thank of
gratitude to my physics teacher Mr Prabhat Singh who gave me the
golden opportunity to do this wonderful project, which also helped me
in doing a lot of research and I came to know about so many new
things I am really thankful to him.
Then I would like to thank my parents and friends who have
helped me with their valuable suggestions and whose guidance has
been helpful in various phases of the completion of the project. Their
suggestions and instructions have served as the major contribution
towards the completion of the project.
Avinav Agarwal
 Contents
S.No. Title
1. Introduction
2. Physical Optics or Wave Optics
3. Conditions for Wave Interference
4. Newton's Rings
5. Huygens's Principle
6. Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Wave Theory
7. Max Planck’s Quantum Theory
8. De – Broglie’s Dual Theory
9. Young's Double Slit Experiment
10. Coherence
11. Law of Malus
12. Brewster’s Law
13. Constructive and Destructive Wave Interference
14. The Rayleigh Criterion
15. The wave optics approximation
16. Applications of Wave Optics
 INTRODUCTION
In physics, physical optics, or wave optics, is the branch
of optics that studies interference, diffraction, polarization, and
other phenomena for which the ray approximation of geometric
optics is not valid. This usage tends not to include effects such
as quantum noise in optical communication, which is studied in
the sub-branch of coherence theory.
Wave optics describes the connection between waves and rays
of light. According to wave theory of light, the light is a form
of energy which travels through a medium in the form of
transverse wave motion. The speed of light in a medium
depends upon the nature of medium
  Physical Optics or Wave Optics
 In physical optics, light is considered to propagate as a wave. This model predicts
phenomena such as interference and diffraction which are not explained by
geometric optics. The speed of light waves in air is approximately 3.0×108 m/s
(exactly 299,792,458 m/s in vacuum). The wavelength of visible light waves varies
between 400 and 700 nm, but the term "light" is also often applied to infrared (0.7–
300 μm) and ultraviolet radiation (10–400 nm).
 The wave model can be used to make predictions about how an optical system will
behave without requiring an explanation of what is "waving" in what medium.
Until the middle of the 19th century, most physicists believed in an "ethereal"
medium in which the light disturbance propagated. The existence of
electromagnetic waves was predicted in 1865 by Maxwell's equations. These waves
propagate at the speed of light and have varying electric and magnetic fields which
are orthogonal to one another, and also to the direction of propagation of the waves.
Light waves are now generally treated as electromagnetic waves except
when quantum mechanical effects have to be considered.
 Conditions for Wave Interference
 Interference is a phenomenon in which two waves superimpose to form a resultant wave of
greater or lesser amplitude. Its effects can be observed in all types of waves (for example, light,
acoustic waves and water waves). Interference usually refers to the interaction of waves that
are correlated (coherent) with each other because they originate from the same source, or they
have the same or nearly the same frequency. When two or more waves are incident on the same
point, the total displacement at that point is equal to the vector sum of the displacements of the
individual waves. If a crest of one wave meets a crest of another wave of the same frequency at
the same point, then the magnitude of the displacement is the sum of the individual
magnitudes. This is constructive interference and occurs when the phase difference between
the waves is a multiple of 2π. Destructive interference occurs when the crest of one wave
meets a trough of another wave. In this case, the magnitude of the displacements is equal to the
difference in the individual magnitudes, and occurs when this difference is an odd multiple of
π. Examples of constructive and destructive interference are shown in . If the difference
between the phases is intermediate between these two extremes, then the magnitude of the
displacement of the summed waves lies between the minimum and maximum values.
 Newton's Rings
 In 1717, Isaac Newton first analysed an interference pattern caused by
the reflection of light between a spherical surface and an adjacent flat surface.
Although first observed by Robert Hooke in 1664, this pattern is called Newton's
rings, as Newton was the first to analyze and explain the phenomena. Newton's rings
appear as a series of concentric circles cantered at the point of contact between the
spherical and flat surfaces. When viewed with monochromatic light, Newton's rings
appear as alternating bright and dark rings; when viewed with white light, a concentric
ring pattern of rainbow colors is observed.
 The light rings are caused by constructive interference between the light rays reflected
from both surfaces, while the dark rings are caused by destructive interference. The
outer rings are spaced more closely than the inner ones because the slope of the
curved lens surface increases outwards. The radius of the Nth bright ring is given by:
rN=[(N−12λR)]1/2
where N is the bright-ring number, R is the radius of curvature of the lens the
light is passing through, and λ is the wavelength of the light passing through the glass.
 Huygens's Principle
 The Huygens-Fresnel principle states that every point on a wavefront is a source
of wavelets. These wavelets spread out in the forward direction, at the same speed
as the source wave. The new wave front is a line tangent to all of the wavelets.
 Christiaan Huygens was a Dutch scientist who developed a useful technique for
determining how and where waves propagate. In 1678, he proposed that every
point that a luminous disturbance touches becomes itself a source of a spherical
wave. The sum of the secondary waves (waves that are a result of the
disturbance) determines the form of the new wave. shows secondary waves
traveling forward from their point of origin. He was able to come up with an
explanation of the linear and spherical wave propagation, and derive the laws of
reflection and refraction (covered in previous atoms) using this principle. He
could not, however, explain what is commonly known as diffraction effects.
Diffraction effects are the deviations from rectilinear propagation that occurs
when light encounters edges, screens and apertures. These effects were explained
in 1816 by French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel.
 Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Wave
Theory
 (i) Light waves are electromagnetic waves which do not require a
material medium for their propagation.
 (ii) Due to transverse nature, light wave undergo polarisation.
 (iii) The velocity of electromagnetic wave in vacuum is c = 1 / √μo εo
 (iv) The velocity of electromagnetic waves in medium is less than that
of light,
v < c v = 1 / √μo εo εr μr = c / √μo εr
 (v) The velocity of electromagnetic waves in a medium depend upon
the electric and magnetic properties of the medium.
where, μo = absolute magnetic permeability and
εo = absolute electrical permittivity of free space.
 (vi) It failed to explain the phenomenon of photoelectric effect,
Compton effect and Raman effect.
James Clerk Maxwell
 Max Planck’s Quantum Theory
 (i) Light emits from a source in the form of packets
of energy called quanta or photon.
 (ii) The energy of a photon is E == hv, where h is
Planck’s constant and v is the frequency of light.
 (iii) Quantum theory could explain photoelectric
effect, Compton effect and Raman effect.
 (iv) Quantum theory failed to explain interference,
diffraction and polarisation of light.
Max Planck
 De – Broglie’s Dual Theory
 Light waves have dual nature, wave nature according to
Maxwell’s electromagnetic wave theory and particle nature
according to Max-Planck’s quantum theory.
 Two natures of light are like the two faces of a coin. In
anyone phenomena only its one nature appears.
Energy of photon = hv = hc / λ
where, h = Planck’s constant 6.6 * 10
de-Broglie wave equation is λ=h/p=h/mv
where h denotes Planck’s constant.
 Young's Double Slit Experiment
 The double-slit experiment, also called Young's experiment, shows
that matter and energy can display both wave and particle characteristics. As we
discussed in the atom about the Huygens principle, Christiaan Huygens proved
in 1628 that light was a wave. But some people disagreed with him, most
notably Isaac Newton. Newton felt that color, interference,
and diffraction effects needed a better explanation. People did not accept
the theory that light was a wave until 1801, when English physicist Thomas
Young performed his double-slit experiment. In his experiment, he sent light
through two closely spaced vertical slits and observed the resulting pattern on
the wall behind them. The pattern that resulted can be seen in .
 Wave-Particle Duality
The wave characteristics of light cause the light to pass through the slits and
interfere with itself, producing the light and dark areas on the wall behind the slits.
The light that appears on the wall behind the slits is scattered and absorbed by the
wall, which is a characteristic of a particle.

Coherence
Coherence was originally conceived in connection with Thomas Young's double-slit
experiment in optics but is now used in any field that involves waves, such
as acoustics, electrical engineering, neuroscience, and quantum mechanics. The property of
coherence is the basis for commercial applications such as holography, the Sagnac gyroscope,
radio antenna arrays, optical coherence tomography and telescope interferometers
(astronomical optical interferometers and radio telescopes).
 The coherence of two waves expresses how well correlated the waves are as quantified by
the cross-correlation function. The cross-correlation quantifies the ability to predict the phase
of the second wave by knowing the phase of the first. As an example, consider two waves
perfectly correlated for all times. At any time, phase difference will be constant. If, when
combined, they exhibit perfect constructive interference, perfect destructive interference, or
something in-between but with constant phase difference, then it follows that they are perfectly
coherent. As will be discussed below, the second wave need not be a separate entity. It could be
the first wave at a different time or position. In this case, the measure of correlation is
the autocorrelation function (sometimes called self-coherence). Degree of correlation involves
correlation functions.
 Law of Malus
 When a beam of completely plane polarised light is
incident on an analyser, the intensity of transmitted light
from analyser is directly proportional to the square of the
cosine of the angle between plane of transmission of
analyser and polariser, i.e.,
I ∝ cos2 θ
When ordinary light is incident on a polariser the intensity
of transmitted light is half of the intensity of incident light.
When a polariser and analyser are perpendicular to each
other, then intensity of transmitted light from analyser
becomes O.
 Brewster’s Law
 When unpolarised light is incident at an angle of
polarisation (ip) on the interface separating air from
a medium of refractive index μ, then reflected light
becomes fully polarised, provided
μ = tan ip
If angle of polarisation is ip and angle of refraction is
μ then
ip + r = 90°
Refractive index μ = tan ip = 1 / sin C
where, C = critical angle.
 Constructive and Destructive
Wave Interference
 Constructive wave interference occurs when waves interfere with each other crest-
to-crest (peak-to-peak) or trough-to-trough (valley-to-valley) and the waves are
exactly in phase with each other. This amplifies the resultant wave. Destructive
wave interference occurs when waves interfere with each other crest-to-trough
(peak-to-valley) and are exactly out of phase with each other. This cancels out any
wave and results in no light. These concepts are shown in . It should be noted that
this example uses a single, monochromatic wavelength, which is not common in
real life; a more practical example is shown in .
 The pattern that results from double-slit diffraction is not random, although it may
seem that way. Each slit is a different distance from a given point on the wall behind
it. For each different distance, a different number of wavelengths fit into that path.
The waves all start out in phase (matching crest-to-crest), but depending on the
distance of the point on the wall from the slit, they could be in phase at that point
and interfere constructively, or they could end up out of phase and interfere with
each other destructively.
 The Rayleigh Criterion
 In the 19th century, Lord Rayleigh invented a criteria for determining
when two light sources were distinguishable from each other, or resolved.
According to the criteria, two point sources are considered just resolved
(just distinguishable enough from each other to recognize two sources) if
the center of the diffraction pattern of one is directly overlapped by the
first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other. If the distance is
greater between these points, the sources are well resolved (i.e., they are
easy to distinguish from each other). If the distance is smaller, they are
not resolved (i.e., they cannot be distinguished from each other).
The equation to determine this is:
θ=1.22λ/D
 θ - angle the objects are separated by, in radian λ - wavelength of light D -
aperture diameter. shows this concept visually. This equation also gives
the angular spreading of a source of light having a diameter D.
 The wave optics approximation
 Physical or wave optics is also the name of an approximation commonly used in
optics, electrical engineering and applied physics. In this context, it is an intermediate
method between geometric optics, which ignores wave effects, and full
wave electromagnetism, which is a precise theory. The word "physical" means that it
is more physical than geometric or ray optics and not that it is an exact physical
theory.
 This approximation consists of using ray optics to estimate the field on a surface and

then integrating that field over the surface to calculate the transmitted or scattered

field. This resembles the Born approximation, in that the details of the problem are
treated as a perturbation.
 In optics, it is a standard way of estimating diffraction effects. In radio, this

approximation is used to estimate some effects that resemble optical effects. It models
several interference, diffraction and polarization effects but not the dependence of
diffraction on polarization. Since it is a high-frequency approximation, it is often more
accurate in optics than for radio.
 In optics, it typically consists of integrating ray-estimated field over a
lens, mirror or aperture to calculate the transmitted or scattered field.
 In radar scattering it usually means taking the current that would be
found on a tangent plane of similar material as the current at each
point on the front, i. e. the geometrically illuminated part, of a scatter.
Current on the shadowed parts is taken as zero. The approximate
scattered field is then obtained by an integral over these approximate
currents. This is useful for bodies with large smooth convex shapes
and for lossy (low-reflection) surfaces.
 The ray-optics field or current is generally not accurate near edges or
shadow boundaries, unless supplemented by diffraction and creeping
wave calculations.
 The standard theory of physical optics has some defects in the
evaluation of scattered fields, leading to decreased accuracy away
from the specular direction. An improved theory introduced in 2004
gives exact solutions to problems involving wave diffraction by
conducting scatters.
 Applications of Wave Optics
i) Enhancement of Microscopy
Microscopes are used to view objects that cannot be seen with the naked eye. In this
section we will discuss both optical and electron microscopy.
Optical Microscopy
 In optical microscopy, light reflected from an object passes through the microscope's

lenses; this magnifies the light. The resultant, magnified image is then seen by the eye.
Although this type of microscopy has many limitations, there are several techniques
that use properties of light and optics to enhance the magnified image:
 Bright field: This technique increases the contrast by illuminating the surface on which

the objects sit from below.

 Oblique illumination: This technique illuminates the object from the side, giving it a

three-dimensional appearance and highlighting features that would otherwise not be

visible.
 Dark field: This technique is good for improving the contrast of transparent objects. A

carefully aligned light source minimizes the un-scattered light entering the
object plane and so only collects the light that is scattered by the object itself.
Dispersion staining: This results in a coloured image of a colourless object; it does not
actually require that the object be stained.
Phase contrast: This uses the refractive index of an object to show differences in optical
density as a difference in contrast.
Electron Microscopy
 Electron microscopes use electron beams to achieve higher resolutions than are
possible in optical microscopy. Two kinds of electron microscopes are:
 Transmission electron microscope (TEM): The TEM sends an electron beam
through a thin slice of a specimen. The electron interacts with the specimen and is
then transmitted onto photographic paper or a screen. Since electron beams have a
much smaller wavelength than traditional light, the resolution of the resulting image
is much higher.
 Scanning electron microscope (SEM): The SEM shows details on the surface of a
specimen and produces a three-dimensional view by scanning the specimen. shows
an SEM image of pollen.
ii) The Spectrometer
A spectrometer is an instrument used to intensely measure light over a
specific portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, to identify materials. The
instrument produces lines, much like those produced from diffraction grating as
covered in a previous atom, and then measures the wavelengths and intensities
of those lines.
Spectroscopy
 Spectroscopy studies the interaction between matter and radiated energy. This

radiated energy is a function of wavelength and frequency. Every type of atom

has its own frequency. When the spectrometer produces a reading, the observer
can then use spectroscopy to identify the atoms and therefore molecules that
make up that object.
Spectroscopes
 Spectroscopes are used in a variety of fields, such as astronomy and chemistry.

They use a diffraction grating, movable slit, and a photo detector. All of
these elements are controlled by a computer, which records the findings. A
material is heated to incandescence and it emits a light that is characteristic of
its atomic makeup. Each atom has its own spectroscopic 'fingerprint'. In you
can see a very simple spectroscope based on a prism. As another example,
Sodium produces a double yellow band.
iii) The Michelson Interferometer
The most common tool in interferometry, the Michelson Interferometer,
shown in Figure 1 , was invented by Albert Abraham Michelson, the first
American to win a Nobel Prize for science. The interferometer works by
splitting a beam of light into two paths, bouncing them back and then
recombining them to create an interference pattern.
Applications
 The Michelson Interferometer has been used for the detection of
gravitational waves, as a tuneable narrow band filter, and as the core of
Fourier transform spectroscopy. It has played an important role in studies of
the upper atmosphere, revealing temperatures and winds (employing both
space-borne and ground-based instruments) by measuring the Doppler
widths and shifts in the spectra of airglow and aurora. The best known
application of the Michelson Interferometer is the Michelson-Morley
experiment—a failed attempt to demonstrate the effect of the hypothetical
"aether wind" on the speed of light. Their experiment left theories of light
based on the existence of a aluminiferous aether without experimental
support, and served ultimately as an inspiration for special relativity.
iv) LCDs
LCD stands for a liquid crystal display. The liquid crystals themselves do not
emit light, but the display uses the light modulating properties of the crystals.
LCDs can be used to display arbitrary images, such as in a computer monitor or
television, by using a large number of very small pixels, or they can be used to
display fixed images, like a digital clock.
Unlike the newer cathode ray tube (CRT) and plasma displays, LCDS do not
use phosphors. For this reason they do not suffer image burn-in. They do however
suffer image persistence. Image burn-in occurs when an image is displayed so
many times, or for so long, that an outline of image can be seen even when the
display is turned off. Image persistence is similar, but the outline fades away
shortly after the display is turned off and is not permanent.
LCD displays are made up of numerous layers. A typical layer is
diagrammed in . Each pixel of an LCD consists of a layer of molecules aligned
between two transparent electrodes and two polarizing films, and the actual liquid
crystals are between these polarizing filters. The light passes through the first
filter, and is blocked by the second. The electrodes are used to align the crystals in
a particular direction, which produces the image seen on the screen. The crystals
do not emit any light, but rather give the light a specific shape to be emitted in.
v) Using Interference to Read CDs and DVDs
Compact disks (CDs) and digital video disks (DVDs) are examples of optical
discs. They are read in an optical disc drive which directs a laser beam at the
disc. The reader then detects whether the beam has been reflected or scattered.
Function of Digital Discs
 Optical discs are digital storing media. They can store music, files, movies,

pictures etc.. These discs are flat, usually made of aluminium, and have
microscopic pits and lands on one of the flat surfaces (as shown in ). The
information on these discs are read by a computer in the form of binary data.
First, a laser beam is shot at the disc. If the beam hits a land, it gets reflected
back and is recorded as a value of 1. If the beam hits a pit, it gets scattered and
is recorded as a value of zero.
 These microscopic pits and lands cover the entire surface of the disc in a spiral

path, starting in the centre and working its way outward. The data is stored
either by a stamping machine or laser and is read when the data is illuminated
by a laser diode in the disc drive. The disc spins at a faster speed when it is
being read in the centre track, and slower for an outer track. This is because
the centre tracks are smaller in circumference and therefore can be read
quicker.
Early Version of an Optical Disc
In this early version of an optical disc, you can
see the pits and lands which either reflect back
light or scatter it.
 Bibliography
 ISC Physics Book for class XI
 https://en.wikipedia.org
 http://ncerthelp.com
 https://www.boundless.com/physics/textbooks
 http://www.lightandmatter.com