INTRODUCTION TO FLUID

MECHANICS

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

20/06/23
 1) 2) Vapor
Classification Pressure and
of Fluid Flows Cavitation

4) Surface
Tension and 3)Viscosity
Capillary Effect
Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 2
 FLUID MECHANICS OVERVIEW

Fluid Mechanics

Gas Liquids Statics Dynamics

F 0 i  F  0 , Flows
i

Air, He, Ar, N2, Water, Oils, Stability

Alcohols, etc. Buoyancy
etc. Pressure Compressible/
Incompressible
Laminar/
Surface
Turbulent
Tension
Steady/Unsteady
Compressibility Density Viscosity Vapor
Viscous/Inviscid
Pressure
Chapter 8: Introduction Fluid Dynamics:
Chapter 9: Fluid Statics
Rest of Course

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 TYPES OF FLOW
Steady or Unsteady Fluid Flow

• In steady flow the velocity of the fluid

particles at any point is constant as time
passes.
• Unsteady flow exists whenever the velocity at
a point in the fluid changes as time passes.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 4

 TYPES OF FLOW
Compressible & Incompressible

• Fluid Flow Fluid flow can be compressible or

incompressible, depending on whether you can
easily compress the fluid. Liquids are usually nearly
impossible to compress, whereas gases (also
considered a fluid) are very compressible.
• A hydraulic system works only because liquids are
incompressible — that is, when you increase the
pressure in one location in the hydraulic system, the
pressure increases to match everywhere in the whole
system.
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 TYPES OF FLOW
Compressible & Incompressible
• Gases, on the other hand, are very compressible —
even when your bike tire is stretched to its limit, you
can still pump more air into it by pushing down on
the plunger and squeezing it in.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 6

 TYPES OF FLOW
Rotational & Irrotational Fluid Flow
• Fluid flow can be rotational or
irrotational.
• If, as you travel in a closed loop,
you add up all the components of
the fluid velocity vectors along
your path and the end result is
not zero, then the flow is
rotational. To test whether a flow
has a rotational component, you
can put a small object in the flow
and let the flow carry it.
If the small object spins, the flow is rotational; if the
object doesn’t spin, the flow is irrotational.
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 TYPES OF FLOW
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
• Laminar Flow : the fluid particles move along smooth
well defined path or streamlines that are parallel,
thus particles move in laminas or layers , smoothly
gliding over each other.
• Turbulent Flow : the fluid particles do not move in
orderly manner and they occupy different relative
positions in successive cross sections. There is a small
fluctuation in magnitude and direction of the velocity
of the fluid particles.
• Transitional flow : the flow occurs between laminar
and turbulent flow.
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF FLUIDS

• Gas or liquid state

• “Large” molecular spacing relative to a solid
• “Weak” intermolecular cohesive forces
• Can not resist a shear stress in a stationary state
• Will take the shape of its container
• Generally considered a continuum
• Viscosity distinguishes different types of fluids

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

MEASURES OF FLUID MASS AND WEIGHT:
DENSITY
The density of a fluid is defined as mass per unit volume.
m

v
m = mass, and v = volume.

•Different fluids can vary greatly in density

•Liquids densities do not vary much with pressure and temperature
•Gas densities can vary quite a bit with pressure and temperature
•Density of water at 4° C : 1000 kg/m3
•Density of Air at 4° C : 1.20 kg/m3

1
Alternatively, Specific Volume: 


Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

MEASURES OF FLUID MASS AND WEIGHT:
SPECIFIC WEIGHT
The specific weight of fluid is its weight per unit volume.

  g
g = local acceleration of gravity, 9.807 m/s2

•Specific weight characterizes the weight of the fluid system

•Specific weight of water at 4° C : 9.80 kN/m3
•Specific weight of air at 4° C : 11.9 N/m3

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

MEASURES OF FLUID MASS AND WEIGHT:
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The specific gravity of fluid is the ratio of the density of the fluid to the
density of water @ 4° C.


SG 
 H 2O

•Gases have low specific gravities

•A liquid such as Mercury has a high specific gravity, 13.2
•The ratio is unitless.
•Density of water at 4° C : 1000 kg/m3

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 VISCOSITY
Introduction
The viscosity is measure of the “fluidity” of the fluid which is not captured
simply by density or specific weight. A fluid can not resist a shear and under
shear begins to flow. The shearing stress and shearing strain can be related
with a relationship of the following form for common fluids such as water, air,
oil, and gasoline:

du
 
dy
m is the absolute viscosity or dynamics viscosity of the fluid, u is the
velocity of the fluid and y is the vertical coordinate as shown in the
schematic below:

“No Slip
Condition”

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 VISCOSITY
Measurements
A Capillary Tube Viscosimeter is one method of measuring the
viscosity of the fluid.
Viscosity Varies from Fluid to Fluid and is dependent on
temperature, thus temperature is measured as well.
Units of Viscosity are N·s/m2 or lb·s/ft2

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 VISCOSITY
NEWTONIAN VS. NON-NEWTONIAN
Toothpaste
Latex
Paint

Corn
Starch

Newtonian Fluids are Linear Relationships between stress and strain:

Most common fluids are Newtonian.
Non-Newtonian Fluids are Non-Linear between stress and strain

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 VISCOSITY
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY




•Kinematic viscosity is another way of representing viscosity
•Used in the flow equations
•The units are of L2/T or m2/s and ft2/s

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 COMPRESSIBILITY OF FLUIDS
BULK MODULUS

dp
E 
d / 
P is pressure, and r is the density.

•Measure of how pressure compresses the volume/density

•Units of the bulk modulus are N/m2 (Pa) and lb/in.2 (psi).
•Large values of the bulk modulus indicate incompressibility
•Incompressibility indicates large pressures are needed to compress the volume
slightly
•It takes 3120 psi to compress water 1% at atmospheric pressure and 60° F.
•Most liquids are incompressible for most practical engineering problems.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 COMPRESSIBILITY OF FLUIDS
COMPRESSION OF GASES
Ideal Gas Law: p  RT

P is pressure, r is the density, R is the gas constant, and T is Temperature

Isothermal Process (constant temperature):

p Math
 cons tan t E  p

Isentropic Process (frictionless, no heat exchange):
p Math
k
 cons tan t E  kp

k is the ratio of specific heats, cp (constant pressure) to
cv (constant volume), and R = cp – cv.

If we consider air under at the same conditions as water, we can show

that air is 15,000 times more compressible than water. However, many
engineering applications allow air to be considered incompressible.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 COMPRESSIBILITY OF FLUIDS
SPEED OF SOUND
A consequence of the compressibility of fluids is that small disturbances
introduced at a point propagate at a finite velocity. Pressure disturbances in the
fluid propagate as sound, and their velocity is known as the speed of sound or the
acoustic velocity, c.

dp Ev
c or c 
d 

Isentropic Process (frictionless, no heat exchange because):

kp
c

Ideal Gas and Isentropic Process:

c  kRT
Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah
 Compressibility of Fluids
Speed of Sound
Speed of Sound in Air at 60 °F  1117 ft/s or 300 m/s
Speed of Sound in Water at 60 °F  4860 ft/s or 1450 m/s
If a fluid is truly incompressible, the speed of sound is infinite, however, all
fluids compress slightly.

Example: A jet aircraft flies at a speed of 250 m/s at an altitude of 10,700 m,

where the temperature is -54 °C. Determine the ratio of the speed of the aircraft,
V, to the speed of sound, c at the specified altitude. Assume k = 1.40

Ideal Gas and Isentropic Process:

c  kRT
c  1.40 * (286.9 J / kgK ) * 219 K
c  296.6 m / s

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 COMPRESSIBILITY OF FLUIDS
SPEED OF SOUND
Example (Continued):
V
Ratio 
c
250 m / s
Ratio 
296.6 m / s
Ratio  0.84
 The above ratio is known as the Mach Number, Ma
 For Ma < 1 Subsonic Flow
 For Ma > 1 Supersonic Flow

For Ma > 1 we see shock waves and “sonic booms”:

1) Wind Tunnel Visualization known as Schlieren method
2) Condensation instigated from jet speed allowing us to
see a shock wave

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 VAPOR PRESSURE
EVAPORATION AND BOILING
Evaporation occurs in a fluid when liquid molecules at the surface have
sufficient momentum to overcome the intermolecular cohesive forces and escape
to the atmosphere.

Vapor Pressure is that pressure exerted on the fluid by the vapor in a closed
saturated system where the number of molecules entering the liquid are the same
as those escaping. Vapor pressure depends on temperature and type of fluid.

Boiling occurs when the absolute pressure in the fluid reaches the vapor pressure.
Boiling occurs at approximately 100 °C, but it is not only a function of temperature,
but also of pressure. For example, in Colorado Spring, water boils at temperatures
less than 100 °C.

Cavitation is a form of
Boiling due to low pressure
locally in a flow.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 SURFACE TENSION

At the interface between a liquid and a gas or two immiscible liquids, forces
develop forming an analogous “skin” or “membrane” stretched over the
fluid mass which can support weight.

This “skin” is due to an imbalance of cohesive forces. The interior of the fluid is
in balance as molecules of the like fluid are attracting each other while on the
interface there is a net inward pulling force.

Surface tension is the intensity of the molecular attraction per unit length along
any line in the surface.

Surface tension is a property of the liquid type, the temperature, and the other fluid at
the interface.

This membrane can be “broken” with a surfactant which reduces the surface tension.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 LIQUID DROP
The pressure inside a drop of fluid can be calculated using a free-body diagram:

Real Fluid Drops Mathematical Model

R is the radius of the droplet, s is the surface tension, Dp is the pressure

difference between the inside and outside pressure.
The force developed around the edge due to surface tension along the line:
F  2R
surface
Applied to Circumference

This force is balanced by the pressure difference Dp:

Applied to Area
Fpressure  pR 2

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 LIQUID DROP
Now, equating the Surface Tension Force to the Pressure Force, we can
estimate Dp = pi – pe:
2
p 
R
This indicates that the internal pressure in the droplet is greater that the external
pressure since the right hand side is entirely positive.

Is the pressure inside a bubble of water greater or less than that of a droplet
of water?
4
Prove to yourself the following result: p 
R

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 CAPILLARY ACTION
Capillary action in small tubes which involve a liquid-gas-solid interface is
caused by surface tension. The fluid is either drawn up the tube or pushed
down.
“Wetted” “Non-Wetted”

h is the height, R is
the radius of the
Adhesion tube, q is the angle
of contact.
Cohesion
Adhesion
Cohesion
The weight of the
Adhesion > Cohesion Cohesion > Adhesion fluid is balanced
with the vertical
force caused by
surface
tension.

q water usually ≈ 0 ° while q mercury > 180°

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah
 CAPILLARY ACTION
Free Body Diagram for Capillary Action for a Wetted Surface:

Fsurface  2R cos 

2 2
W  mg  gV  g(R h)  R h
Equating the two and solving for h:

2 cos 
Fsurface  W ; h
R
For clean glass in contact with water, q  0°, and thus as R decreases, h increases,
giving a higher rise/ capillary up.

For a clean glass in contact with Mercury, q  130°, and thus h is negative or there
is a push down of the fluid. In this case θ > 90° and thus cos θ < 0 ,
which makes h negative. Therefore, a negative value of capillary rise corresponds
to a capillary drop.
Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah
 CAPILLARY ACTION

At what value of contact angle q does the liquid-solid interface become “non-
wetted”?
q > 90°

Surface tension is apparent in many practical problems such as movement of liquid

through soil and other porous media, flow of thin films, formation of drops and
bubbles, and the breakup of liquid jets.

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah

 EXAMPLE
A 0.6 mm diameter glass tube is inserted into water at 20°C in a cup. Determine
the capillary rise of water in the tube. Assume σ = 0.073 N/m

Prepared By: Puteri Nur Syaza Wardiah 29