SCIENCE AND THE

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

October 05
 outline
• Introduction and definitions
• Science, nature of science
• How science progresses
• The scientific method
• More definitions
 Definitions
Science (Lat. Scientia, from scire, “to know”) is wonder
about nature. Like philosophy, science poses
questions-but also has the means to answer them, as
long as they concern the state and behavior of the
physical world.
Science is the systematic study of the properties of the
physical world, by means of repeatable experiments
and measurements, and the development of universal
theories that are capable of describing and predicting
observations. Statements in science must be precise
and meaningful, such that other people can test them.
(in order to establish “universality”).
 Science is:
1. The systematic observation of natural events and
conditions in order to discover facts about them and
to formulate laws and principles based on these
facts.
2. The organized body of knowledge that is derived
from such observations and that can be verified or
tested by further investigation.
3. Any specific branch of this general body of
knowledge, such as biology, physics, geology, or
astronomy.
(Academic Press Dictionary of Science & Technology)
 Science Inquiry
Science involves more than the gaining of
knowledge. It is the systematic and
organized inquiry into the natural world
and its phenomena. Science is about
gaining a deeper and often useful
understanding of the world.
 Definitions by Contrast
To do science is to search for repeated
patterns, not simply to accumulate facts.
Robert H. MacArthur, Geographical
Ecology.

Religion is a culture of faith; science is a

culture of doubt.
Richard Feynman
 What Modern Science Did:
Modern science has abandoned the following
myths of absolute:
• Absolute truth
• Absolute space (geometry)
• Absolute time
• Absolute motion/rest
• Absolute form of matter (mass/energy)
• Absolute determinism
• Absolute causality
 How Science Progresses

1. The classical view

3. The modern view

 The Modern View
The Modern View –
Thomas Kuhn
• Thomas Samuel Kuhn
(1992-1996)
• American
• Educated: Harvard
University
• Professor of History and
Philosophy of Science at
Berkeley, Harvard,
Princeton, MIT
• Published “The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions in
1962.
 How Science Progresses
according to Kuhn
Scientific paradigm:
A set of fundamental beliefs to
which scientists subscribe and
which they use as a framework for
conducting experiments.
Kuhn’s Model of the
Progress of Science
Existing Paradigm

Challenging Discoveries

Paradigm Weakening
New Theories; New Methods

New Paradigm

Process Repeats Itself

 Kuhn’s Model of the
Progress of Science
• Process referred to as a “paradigm
shift”

• Sometimes called a “scientific

revolution”.
Paradigm Shift Example

DARWIN’S

THEORY

OF

EVOLUTION
Another Paradigm Shift
• THE SHIFT FROM

HARDWARE TO

SOFTWARE

DOMINANCE IN THE

• COMPUTER INDUSTRY
 OR

THE

PERSONAL

COMPUTER

AS A COMMODITY
 Paradigm Shift II

• In 1992, Thomas Kuhn published a

groundbreaking book entitled The Structure
of Scientific Revolutions. In it, he argued
that the progress of science is not gradual
but (much as we now think of biological
evolution), a kind of punctuated equilibrium,
with moments of epochal change. When
Copernicus explained the movements of the
planets by postulating that they moved
around the sun rather.
 Paradigm Shift II
• Than the earth, or when Darwin introduced his ideas
about the origin of species, they were doing more
than just building on past discoveries, or explaining
new experimental data. A truly profound scientific
breakthrough, Kuhn notes, “is seldom or never just
an increment to what is already known. Its
assimilation requires the reconstruction of prior
theory and the reevaluation of prior fact, an
intrinsically revolutionary process that is seldom
completed by a single man and never overnight(1).

(1) Kuhn referred to these revolutionary

processes in science as “paradigm shifts”, a
term that has now entered the language to
describe any profound change in our frame of
 Paradigm Shift II

• Paradigm shifts occur from time to time in

business as well as in science. And as with
scientific revolutions, they are often hard
fought, and the ideas underlying them not
widely accepted until long after they were
first introduced. What’s more, they often
have implications that go far beyond the
insights of their creators.
 What is “The Scientific
Method”?
The scientific methods is the logical scheme
used by scientists searching for answers to the
questions posed within science, as well to
formulate theories as to assure the means for
producing them (instruments, tools, algorithms).
 What is “The Scientific
Method”?
1. Pose the question in the context of existing
knowledge (theory & observations). (It can
be a new question that old theories are
capable of answering (usually the case), or
the question that calls for formulation of a
new preliminary theory).
2. Formulate a hypothesis as a tentative
answer.
3. Deduce consequences and make
predictions.
 What is “The Scientific
Method”?
1. Test the hypothesis in a specific new
experiment/theory field. The new hypothesis must
prove to fit in the existing world-view (1, “normal
science”, according to Kuhn). In case the hypothesis
leads to contradictions and demands a radical
change in the existing theoretical background, it has
to be tested particularly carefully. The new
hypothesis has to prove fruitful and offer
considerable advantages, in order to replace the
existing scientific paradigm. This is called “scientific
revolution” (Kuhn) and it happens very rarely. As a
rule, the loop 2-3-4 is repeated with modifications of
the hypothesis until the agreement is obtained,
which leads to 4. If major discrepancies are found
the process must start from the beginning, 1.
 What is “The Scientific
Method”?
1. When consistency is obtained the hypothesis
becomes a theory and provides a coherent set of
propositions that define a new class of phenomena
or a new theoretical concept. Theory at that stage is
subject of process of natural selection among
competing theories (6). A theory is then becoming a
framework within observations/theoretical facts are
explained and predictions are made. The process
can start from the beginning, but the state 1 has
changed to include the new theory/improved old
theory.
Iterative Nature of the
Scientific Method

FIGURE 1
Scientific Method - Observation

• EXAMPLE:
The flowers of some plants growing in direct sunlight
seem to be larger than those growing in the shade.

Leads to a question:
Do all flowers grow larger in direct sunlight or in the
shade?

Too general for scientific purposes

Scientific Method - Observation

• “Flowers” is too general.

• Choose a specific flower, say,

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis.

(rosa-sinensis = Chinese rose)

Scientific Method - Observation
“Light” is also too general. Light has
colour (or wavelength to a scientist) and
brightness (intensity to a scientist)

Reformulated question:
Will the blooms of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
be larger if grown under red light or blue
light or blue light?
(of a particular intensity)
Scientific Method - Observation

• Hypothesis and Prediction are related.

• Hypothesis predicts the answer to the

question. Here is our hypothesis.

• “Hibiscus rosa-sinensis will produce

larger blooms when grown in red light
rather than in blue light”
Scientific Method - Observation
The best hypothesis:
Is usually the simplest

Is self-consistent

Fits neatly with other accepted theories

Makes novel predictions which are

supported by experimentation and
observation
Scientific Method - Observation

• think out a methodology;

acquire the equipment we need;
then proceed to perform the expt;
Record our results
Analyze them
Scientific Method - Conclusion

• The conclusions we draw from our

experimental results either support
or falsify our hypothesis.
Scientific Method - Conclusion

• If thy support our hypothesis our

conclusions are on the way to be
coming scientific fact.

• Further steps will be needed Eg.

Refinement repetition
The Logical Structure of the
Scientific Method
Figure 1 describes the logical structure of
scientific method in a very general
scheme. As the flow diagram suggests,
science is in a state of permanent change
and development. The one of the most
important qualities of science is its
provisional character: it is subject to
continuous re-examination and self-
correction.
Science As A Human Activity
It is a tradition that scientific methods,
results and ideas, within fundamental
science at least, are the common heritage
of humanity and they are shared without
profit. They are general (universal) and
unrestrained. In that respect, science
belongs to very few fields of human
activity where information is free. It is the
open information exchange that
constitutes the very backbone of modern
science.
 The Scientific Method is
Impartial
The important advantage of the scientific
method is that it is impartial:2 one does not
have to believe a given researcher, one can (in
principle) repeat the experiment and determine
whether certain results are valid or not. The
conclusions will hold irrespective of the state of
mind, or the religious persuasion, or the state of
the consciousness of the investigator. The
question of impartiality is closely related to
openness and universality of science, which are
its fundamental qualities.
 The Scientific Method and
Problem Solving
•A very good way to do science
•Easy to follow
•Repeatable
•Thorough
•Is the way it’s really done in the field!
•Can be applied to any problem.
What’s the Problem??
You need to state the question
that you are going to be
collecting data on. This problem
is what your project will be
answering.
THIS MUST BE THE FORM OF
A QUESTION!
The question should not be able
to be answered with a yes or no.
What’s the Purpose??
You need to state the purpose of
your investigation – called the
Purpose Statement.

It needs to be clear to you (and

the reader) exactly what you are
investigating. Why are you
doing the project you picked.
 Observation
Before you can ask a question – you
need to make an observation …
2 kinds of Observations
direct – done w/ the 5 senses
4 sight, touch, smell, aural, taste
indirect – done w/ equipment
4 thermometer, anemometer,
balance
 Hypotheses

These are educated guesses –

“educated” implies that the “guesses” are
based on research!!!
Why do the experiment if someone else
already has??!!??
Should be stated in “I think or I
believe” statements
 Procedure

You need to list:

- the materials needed for your
experiment.
- the steps that you are going to (or did)
take to carry out your experiment.
It must be so detailed so that anyone who
may dispute your work can reproduce
exactly what you did.
 Variables to vary

Independent Variables (IV) – the part of

the experiment that you change.

Dependent Variables (DV) – the part of

the experiment that changes as a result of
the manipulation.
 Important definitions

Control Group – the part of the

experiment that is your basis for
comparison.

Constants – the parts of your experiment

that don not change.
 Results – Data Presentation

Data Tables – A simple way to organize

your data.

Graphs – To help your data make visual

sense trends.

Written – Paragraph format

Remember Joe Griday “Just the Facts”

 Conclusions
Three Parts …

Interpretation of Data
What do all of these numbers mean?
Do they make sense?
Why or why not?
How do the results relate to the topic
at hand?
 Conclusions

Analysis of Hypotheses

Did your data support you

hypotheses?
 Conclusions - continued
Error Analysis
What factors might have affected your
data?
How wrong is wrong?
Precision vs. Accuracy
If your data is accurate it is close to true
value
If your data is precise it is consistent
from
trial to trial
Precision vs. Accuracy
• This is precise but
not accurate
Precision vs. Accuracy
This is precise and
accurate
 Reproducibility

A theory is accepted based in the first

place on the results obtained through
logical reasoning, observations and/or
experiments. The results obtained using
the scientific method have to be
reproducible. If the original claims are not
verified, the causes of such discrepancies
are exhaustively studied.
 Summing up
• Basic question 1: do you believe in science?

• Basic question 2: how can we absorb the

concept of the scientific method, digest it
and make a part of our life ?