Introduction to

Data Communication
AND Networking
 Definition of Data in Computing
• At its most rudimentary level, computer data is a bunch of ones and zeros, known
as binary data. Because all computer data is in binary format, it can be created,
processed, saved, and stored digitally.
• Data is of two kind:
• Raw Data
• Processed Data

Definition of Data Communication

• The electronic transmission of information/or data that has been encoded
digitally between two or more digital devices over a transmission media.
 Essentials for Communications
Must have a message
Message must have a transmitter
Message must have a medium
Message must be understood (Protocol)
Message must have some level of security

Source System Destination System

Source  Transmitter  Transmission  Receiver  Destination

1 2 3 4 5

Workstation/PC Medium Workstation/PC

 What is a Network
• A network consists of two or more computers connected together, and they can
communicate and share resources & exchange information.
 What are Elements of a Typical Network
• Node - Anything that is connected to the network. While a node is typically a
computer, it can also be something like a printer or a network device. A node can
either be a source or a sink .
• Segment - Any portion of a network that is separated, by a network device i.e. a
switch, a bridge or a router, from other parts of the network.
• Backbone - The main cabling of a network that all of the segments connect to.
Typically, the backbone is capable of carrying more information than the
individual segments. For example, each segment may have a transfer rate of 10
Mbps (megabits per second: 1 million bits a second), while the backbone may
operate at 100 Mbps.
• Link- Network segment & Backbone together form a network link, this includes
cables , connectors and network interfaces.
 Why Networking is needed?
• Sharing information — i.e. data communication
• Do you prefer this?

• Or this?
 Why Networking is needed?
• Sharing hardware or software
• E.g. print document
 Benefits of networking
Sharing Information
Sharing costly hardware resources
Sharing software resources
Sharing internet connection
Centralized Data Backup
Data security
Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
Message broadcast
Remote computing
Distributed processing
Centralized administration and support
 RISKS OF NETWORK COMPUTING
• The security of a computer network is challenged everyday by:
• Equipment malfunctions
• System failures
• Computer hackers
• Virus attacks
 Characteristics of a Network
• A network should have the following intrinsic features:
• Cost
• Speed
• Security
• Availability
• Scalability
• Reliability
 Data Representation
Information today comes in different forms such as numbers, text, images, audio,
and video. All these information has data contents which needs a digital
representation.

Numbers:
Numbers are represented by bit patterns i.e. the numbers are directly converted to
a binary form to simplify mathematical operations.
 Data Representation
Text:
ASCII: The American Nationals Standard Institute (ANSI) developed a code called the
American Standard Code for Information Interchange. The code uses 7bits for each
symbol. This means that 27 (128) different symbols can be defined by this code.
Extended ASCII: To make the size of each pattern 1byte (8-bits) ASCII pattern is
augmented with an extra 0 in the left (MSB).
Unicode: For representing symbols belonging to languages other than English we
require, a code with much greater capacity. To address this requirement, Unicode was
developed, which uses 16-bits& hence can represent 65536 symbols. Different sections
of the code are allocated to symbols from different languages in the world. Some parts
of the code are used for graphics and special symbols.
ISO: International Standard Organization has developed a code which uses 32 bit
pattern & hence can represent 4,294,967,296 symbols, which is enough to cover
symbols of all languages
 Data Representation
Images:
Images are also represented by bit pattern. In its simplest form, an image is
composed of a matrix of pixels (picture elements), where each pixel is a small dot.
The size of the pixel depends on the resolution
After an image is divided into pixels, each pixel is assigned a bit pattern.
Audio & Video:
Audio & Video signals are continuous in nature and are not a discrete entity.
Therefore Sampling & Quantization process is applied on them and depending
upon the number of quantization levels, bit pattern is assigned to audio & video
data streams.
Line Configuration
 Point-to-Point Line Configuration

In point-to-point connection two devices

are connected through a dedicated link.
The entire capacity of the link is reserved
for transmission between these two
devices. Most point-to-point connections
use an actual length of wire or cable to
connect the two ends, but other options,
such as microwave or satellite links are
also possible.
 Multipoint Line Configuration
Workstations A multipoint (also called multi-drop)
connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single
link. Thus the capacity of the channel
is shared.
The links may be small which may be
within a building or it may be several
kilometers long.
Mainframe If the devices are farther apart it is
impractical to directly connect
through a point-to-point link.
It is always not possible to run a
dedicated line between the devices.
In such cases the devices are to be
connected through networks.
Types of Data Transmission
 Simplex
In this mode the communication between the devices is unidirectional. Only one of the two devices on a link can
transmit; the other can only receive. Keyboards and traditional monitors are both examples of simplex devices.
The keyboard can only introduce input; the monitor can accept only output.

Information flows in only

one direction
 Half-Duplex
In this mode, each station can both transmit and transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one device is
sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. In half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over
by whichever of the two devices is transmitting at the time. Walkie-talkie and citizen band radios are both half-duplex systems.

Information flows in two directions, but only in one

direction at a time.
 Full-Duplex
In this mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.
In full-duplex mode, signals going in either direction share the capacity of the link. This sharing occurs in two ways:
Either the link must contain two physically separate transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving;
or the capacity of the channel is divided between the signals traveling in both the directions.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are communicating by a
telephone line, both can transmit and receive at the same time.

Information flows in two directions

at the same time
 Network Protocols
• In computer networks, communication occurs between entities in different systems. An entity is anything capable of sending
and receiving information.
• However, two entities cannot simply send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication to
occur, the entities must agree on a protocol.
• A Protocol is a set of rules that governs the data communication.
• A protocol defines what is communicated, how is it communicated, and when it is communicated.
• The key elements of a protocol are Syntax, Semantics, and Timing.
• SYNTAX: Refers to structure or format of data and signal levels.
• SEMANTICS: Deals with control information for coordination and error handling.
• TIMING: Deals with synchronization, speed matching, and sequencing.
• Protocols control data communication, which include the following:
– How the data is formatted for transmission
– How computers connect to the network
– How that data is sent
– How to deal with errors
– When the data is sent
– What conformance (bit sequence)is followed between computers
 Network Protocols
• Protocols are created and maintained by organizations and committees such as:
• International Standard Organization (ISO)
• Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
• American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
• Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA)
• Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)
• International Telecommunications Union (ITU) formerly known as Consultative Committee
for International Telegraphy & Telephony (CCITT)
 Standards
They provide guidelines to the manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other service
providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today’s market place and in international
communications.

De facto: This means by fact or by convention. Standards De jure: Those that have been legislated
that have not been approved by an organized body but have by an officially recognized body are De
been adopted as standards through widespread use are jure standards.
defacto standards.
 NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
• Network architecture – refers to the way a network is designed and built. The
two major types are:
• Peer-to-peer architecture – Connected computers have no centralized authority ,
all of these computers are equal. Computers connect with each other in a
workgroup to share files, printers, and Internet access. This is used to connect a
small number of computers.
• Client/server architecture –– It is designed to manage the entire network from
centralized point , which is server . Client makes requests to server and the server
responds with information or provides access to a resource.
NETWORK ARCHITECTURE
 Peer-to-Peer Networks
• Peer-to-peer network is also called workgroup
• No hierarchy among computers, all are equal.
• No administrator responsible for the network
• Peer-to-Peer network is appropriate when:
• 10 or less users
• Security is not an issue
• Only limited growth in the foreseeable future
 Peer-to-Peer Networks
• Advantages :
• Low cost
• Simple to configure
• User has full accessibility of the computer
• Disadvantages :
• May have duplication in resources
• Difficult to uphold security policy
• Difficult to handle uneven loading
 Clients and Servers
• Network Clients (Workstation): Computers that request network resources or
services
• Network Servers: Computers that manage and provide network resources and
services to clients
• Usually have more processing power, memory and hard disk space than clients
• Run Network Operating System that can manage not only data, but also users,
groups, security, and applications on the network
• Servers often have a more stringent requirement on its performance and reliability
• In a client/server network arrangement, network services are located in a
dedicated computer whose only function is to respond to the requests of clients.
• The server contains the file, print, application, security, and other services in a
central computer that is continuously available to respond to client requests.
 Clients and Servers
• Advantages :
• Facilitate resource sharing – centrally administrate and control
• Facilitate system backup and improve fault tolerance
• Enhance security – only administrator can have access to Server
• Support more users – difficult to achieve with peer-to-peer networks
• Disadvantages :
• High cost for Servers
• Need expert to configure the network
• May Introduce a single point of failure to the system
 Types of Networks
• Depending on one’s perspective, we can classify networks in different ways
• Based on transmission media: Guided (UTP, coaxial cables, fiber-optic cables) and
Unguided (Wireless)
• Based on network size: LAN ,MAN,WAN & Internet
• Based on management method: Peer-to-peer and Client/Server
• Based on topology (connectivity): Bus, Star, Ring, Mesh …
• :
• :
Classification of Network based on Size
Local Area Network
Local Area Network :
LAN is in a limited geographical
area such as home, school,
computer laboratory, office
building, or closely positioned
group of buildings.
Metropolitan Area Network
Metropolitan area network- MAN
A metropolitan area network is a
large computer network that
usually spans a city or a large
campus
 Wide Area Network
Wide area network (WAN) is a computer
network that covers a large geographic
area such as a country, or spans even
intercontinental distances, using a
communications channel that combines
many types of media such as telephone
lines, cables.

The defining characteristics of

LANs, in contrast to wide area
networks (WANs), include their
usually higher data-transfer
rates, smaller geographic area,
and lack of a need for leased
telecommunication lines
Internetwork (Internet)
 Mesh Topology
A mesh topology has at least two
network connections on every
device on the network.
Each host has its own connections
to all other hosts.

Implemented to provide as much

protection as possible from
interruption of service

Internet has multiple paths to any

one location but it does not adopt
the full mesh topology.
 Mesh Topology
• The number of links required to service a specified number of nodes in a mesh
network is found by:

Ln = [Nn(Nn - 1)]/2

• where Ln = number of links required, and Nn = number of nodes in the network.

• A mesh network topology is the most fault tolerant topology and also the most
widely used in an Internet and telephone network.
 Mesh Topology

It is used in WANs to
interconnect LANs and for
mission critical networks like
those used by banks and
financial institutions,
networked control systems of
a nuclear power plant .

Implementing the mesh

topology is expensive and
difficult.
 Star Topology All that’s required to expand a
star network is to simply add
another node to the hub port.

In a star network, each node is

connected to a central device either a
HUB or a SWITCH
 Tree Topology

Extended star topology is also called tree topology wherein central Hub/ Switch is connected to
several downstream hubs/ switches.
 Bus Topology
Uses a single backbone cable that is terminated at both ends.
All the hosts connect directly to this backbone
Bandwidth is shared between the number of hosts on Network

Information sent from a node travels along the

backbone until it reaches its destination node.
 Ring Topology
Connects one host to the next and the last host to the first
This creates a physical ring of cable
A ring topology connects the nodes
in a continuous loop. Data flows
around the ring in one direction.

Each node takes a turn in sending and receiving

information through the use of a token. The token along
with any data is sent from the first node to the second
node which extracts the data addressed to it and adds
any data it wishes to send. Then second node passes the
token and data to the third node, etc. until it comes
back around to the first node again. Only the node with
the token is allowed to send data . All other nodes must
wait for the token to come to them.
 Ring Topology

Single ring – All the

devices on the network
share a single cable
Dual ring – The dual ring
topology allows data to
be sent in both
directions.

The disadvantage of a ring

topology is that the ring has
to be opened to add a new
node.
 Hybrid Topology
It is combination of above mentioned topologies, connected by a suitable
networking device.