LESSON - 8

HOW DO ORGANISMS
REPRODUCE?
• Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce
new individuals similar to themselves . It ensures continuity of life
on earth.

• Nucleus of the cell contains DNA which is the

heredity material.
• DNA replicates and forms new cells causing
variation so, these new cells will be similar but
may not be identical to original cell.
• Variation are useful for the survival of the
individual and species over time as well as
basis for evolution.
 TYPES OF REPRODUCTION
• Asexual reproduction:
- a single individual give rise to new individual
- Gametes are not formed.
- new individual is identical to parent.
- it is extremely useful as a means of rapid
multiplication.
- adopted by lower organisms.
 Sexual reproduction:
• two individuals, i.e. one male and one female
are needed to give rise to new individual.
• gametes are formed.
• it is useful to genetically similar but not
identical to parents.
• it is useful to generate more variation in
species.
• adopted by higher organism.
 MODES OF ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

1. FISSION:
The parent cell divides into daughter cells.
*Binary fission: two cells are formed. E.g.
Amoeba
* Multiple fission: many cells are formed.e.g.
Plasmodium
Diagram showing binary fission in amoeba
Diagram showing multiple fission in
plasmodium
 2.Fragmentation
• The organism breaks up into small pieces
upon maturation, each piece develops in new
individual. e.g. spirogyra
Diagram showing fragmentation:
3.Regeneration: if organism is somehow cut
or broken into many pieces each grows into
a complete organism .E.G.Planaria
 4.Budding: a bud is formed develops
into tiny individual. It detaches from
parent body upon maturation and
develops into new individual. E.g. Hydra
 5.Vegetative propagation
• NATURAL METHODS
• In many plants, new plants develops from
vegetative parts such as-
• By roots: e.g. sweet potato, dahlias
• By stems: e.g. potato, ginger
• By leaves: bryophyllum ( leaf notches bears
buds which develop into plants)
 • ARTIFICIAL METHODS:
• Grafting: e.g. mango
• Cutting: rose
• Layering: jasmine
• Tissue culture: new plants are grown by using
growing tip of a plant . These growing cells are
kept in a culture medium leads to the formation
of callus. Callus is then transferred to hormone
medium which causes growth and
differentiation. e.g. ornamental plants, orchids
TISSUE CULTURE
 Benefits of tissue culture
• we can grow plants like banana, rose, jasmine
etc that have lost the capacity to produce
seeds.
• new plants are genetically similar to parents.
• helps in growing seedless fruits.
 5. SPORE FORMATION: Spores are small
bulb like structures which are covered by
thick walls. Under favourable conditions,
they germinate and produce new organism.
 SEXUAL REPRODUTION
• When reproduction takes
place as a result of the fusion
of male and female gametes
then it is called sexual
reproduction.
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
• Flowers are the reproductive
organs of the plant.
• a typical flower consist of four
main whorls namely sepals,
petals, stamen and pistil.
 TYPES OF FLOWERS:
• Unisexual flowers: either male or female
reproductive part is present in flower. E.g.
papaya, watermelon.
• Bisexual flower: both male and female
reproductive part are present. E.g. hibiscus,
mustard.
DIAGRAM OF FLOWER
 PROCESS OF SEED FORMATION
• Pollen grains produces in the anther are
transferred to the stigma of same flower (self
pollination) or stigma of another flower (cross
pollination) through agents like air, water, or
animals.
• Pollen grains germinate and form pollen
tubes which pass through style to reach up to
the ovules present in ovary.
• The fusion of male and female gametes is
called fertilization.
• Zygote is produced inside the ovary.
• Zygote divides to form embryo. Ovule
develops thick outer coat and changes into
seed gradually.
• ovary changes into fruit and other parts of
flower fall off.
• The seed germinates to form a plant under
suitable conditions such as air, moisture, etc.
DIAGRAM SHOWING FERTILIZATION IN
PLANT
 REPRODUCTION IN HUMAN BEINGS

• Humans use sexual mode of reproduction.

• SEXUAL MATURATION: The period of life
when production of germ cells i.e. ova
(female) and sperm (male) start in the body.
This period of sexual maturation is called
puberty.
 CHANGES AT PUBERTY
• Common in male and female: hair growth in
armpits and genital areas, skin becomes oily.
• In girls: breast size begin to increase, girls
begin to menstruate.
• In boys: thick hair growth on face, voice begin
to crack.
These changes signals that sexual maturation is
taking place.
 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• TESTES: a pair of testes are located inside
scrotum which is present outside the abdominal
cavity. Scrotum has a relatively lower
temperature needed for the production of
sperms.
• male germ cell. i.e. sperms are formed here.
• testes release male sex hormone (testosterone),
its function is to regulate production of sperm,
bring changes at puberty.
• VAS DEFERENS: It passes sperm from testes
up to urethra
• URETHRA: It is a common passage for both
sperms and urine . Its outer covering is called
pennis.
• ASSOCIATED GLANDS: seminal vesicles and
prostrate gland add their secretion to the
sperm. This fluid provide nuorishment to
sperms and make their transport easy.
• sperm along with secretion of glands form
semen.
DIAGRAM OF MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
 FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
• OVARY: A pair of ovary is located in both sides of
abdomen.
• female germ cells i.e. eggs are produced here.
• at the time of birth of girl, thousands of
immature eggs are present in the ovary.
• at the onset of puberty, some of these eggs
starts maturing.
• one egg is produced every month by one of the
ovaries.
 • OVIDUCT OR FALLOPIAN TUBE: receives the egg
produced by the ovary and transfer it to the uterus.

• fertilisation i.e. fusion of gametes take place

here.
• UTERUS: it is a bag – like structure where
development of the baby takes place.
• uterus opens into vegina through cervix.
DIAGRAM OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM
 WHEN EGG IS FERTILIZED:
• The fertilized egg called zygote is planted in uterus
and develops into an embryo.
• the embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood
with the help of a special tissue called placenta. It
provides a large surface area for the exchange of
glucose, oxygen and waste material.
• The time period from fertilization upon the birth of
the baby is called gestation period.It is about 9
months/ 280 days/ 40 weeks.
 • Stoppage of menstruation is the earliest
sign of pregnancy.
• embryonic development starts in fallopian tube
• zygote formed moves down to the uterus
• by mulitple divisions a ball of cells is formed called
blastocyst
• blastocyst embedded in the wall of uterus
• This process is called implantation
• then developed into foetus
• in the 4th week connection form between foetal
membrane and uterine wall called placenta.
• from here foetus get nutrition from mother’s body.
 WHEN EGG IS NOT FERTILIZED
• The uterus prepare itself every month to receive
fertilized egg.
• The lining of the uterus becomes thick and spongy,
required to support the embryo.
• When fertilisation had not taken place, this lining is
not needed any longer.
• This lining breaks and comes out through vagina as
blood and mucus.
• This cycle takes around 28 days every month and
called menstruation.
 REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

Reproductive health means a

total well being in all aspects
of reproduction, i.e. physical,
emotional, social and
behavioural.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs)

Many diseases can be sexually transmitted such as:

• Bacterial diseases: (a) Gonorrhoea- caused by
bacterium Nisseria gonorrhoeae. The victim feels
burning sensation and pain during urination, it is
cured by antibiotics.
(b) Syphilis: caused by Spirochaete bacterium, it is
chronic illness which affect mucous membrane in
genital region, cured by antibiotics.
 • Viral diseases:
• Warts: these are soft growths that appear on the
genital region.
• AIDS (acquired immunodeficiency syndrome)
- caused by HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)
- It is a fast spreading incurable disease which weaken
the body’s immune system.
- Symptoms: tumours in connective tissues, viral,
bacterial, protozoan and fungal infection of any system
of the body, damage to the brain, fever, loss of weight,
night sweat.
 • spread of disease:
• unprotected sexual contacts
with an infected partner.
• contaminated needle or
razors.
• transfusion of infected blood.
 CONTRACEPTION
• It is the avoidance of pregnancy can be achieved
by preventing the fertilisation of ova.
• METHODS OF CONTRACEPLTION:
1) Physical barrier: to prevent the union of egg and
sperm, use of condoms, cervical caps and
diaphragm.
2) Chemical methods: use of oral pills, these change
hormonal balance of the body so that eggs are
not released, these may have side effects.
3)Intrauterine contraceptive device(IUCD): Copper-
T or loop is placed in uterus to prevent pregnancy.

4) Surgical methods: in male the vas

deferens is blocked to prevent sperm
transfer called vasectomy.
- in females, the fallopian tube is
blocked to prevent egg transfer
called tubectomy.
 Female foeticide
• The practice of killing a female child inside the
womb is called female foeticide.
• For a healthy society, a balance sex ratio is
needed that can be achieved by educating
people to avoid malpractices like female
foeticide and prenatal sex determination.
• Prenatal sex determination is a legal offence in
our country so as to maintain a balance sex
ratio.