Fluid Mechanics (PCE222)

Flow in Pipes

Prof. Zayed Al-Hamamre

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Content

 Overview
 Laminar and Turbulent Flow
 Energy (Head) Losses Due to Friction
o Friction Loss in Laminar Flow
o Friction Loss in Turbulent Flow
o Minor losses
 Pipe Flow Analysis

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Overview
 Pipe Flow is important in daily operations and is described in general as flow in a closed
conduit (pipes and ducts). It is also known as an internal flow.
 Some common examples are oil and water pipelines, flow in blood vessels, and heating and
cooling applications.
 The fluid in such applications is usually forced to flow by a fan or pump through a
flow section.
 Particular attention should be paid to friction, which is directly related to the pressure drop and
head loss during flow through pipes and ducts.
 When real world effects such as viscous effects are considered, it is often difficult to use only
theoretical methods. Often theoretical, experimental data, and dimensional analysis is
used.
 Theoretical solutions are obtained only for a few
simple cases such as fully developed laminar
flow in a circular pipe
Some common pipe
flow
3
components are
shown: of Jordan | Amman 11942, Jordan

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Overview
Pipe flow versus Open-channel flow:
Open-Channel Flow:
Pipe Flow:

• Pipe is completely filled with fluid • Pipe is not full of fluids

• Pressure Gradients drive the flow • Pressure gradient is constant
• Gravity can also be important • Gravity is the driving force
i.e., flow down a concrete spill way.

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Overview
 Pipes with a circular cross section can withstand large pressure differences between the inside
and the outside without undergoing significant distortion.

 Noncircular pipes are usually used in applications such as the heating and cooling
systems of buildings where the pressure difference is relatively small, the manufacturing and
installation costs are lower,

 The fluid velocity in a pipe changes from zero at the

surface because of the no-slip condition to a maximum
at the pipe center
 Vavg, is the average speed through a cross section

From the conservation of mass

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Laminar or Turbulent Flow

Osborne Reynolds 1842–1912, a British scientist and mathematician, was the first to distinguish
the difference between these two classifications of flow by using a simple apparatus as shown

Small flow
rates

Laminar
Reynolds
(1842-1912) Increasing the
flow rates

Transitional
Increasing the
flow rates

Turbulent
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Laminar or Turbulent Flow
If we measure the velocity at any given point with respect to time in the pipe:

Re > 4000

Reynolds Number
Dependency: 2300< Re < 4000

Re < 2300

 Turbulence is characterized by random fluctuations and highly disordered motion.

 Transitional flows are relatively steady accompanied by occasional bursts.
 Laminar flow is relatively steady and characterized by smooth streamlines and highly
ordered motion.
 For laminar flow there is only one flow direction:
 For turbulent flow, there is a predominate flow direction, but there are random
components normal to the flow direction: 7
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Laminar or Turbulent Flow

 In laminar flow, fluid particles flow in an
orderly manner along path lines, and
 Momentum and energy are transferred across
streamlines by molecular diffusion

 Turbulent flow is a flow regime in which the movement of fluid particles is chaotic,
eddying, and unsteady, with significant movement of particles in directions transverse to the
flow direction

 Turbulent flow is characterized by random and rapid

fluctuations of swirling regions of fluid, called eddies,
throughout the flow.
 These fluctuations provide an additional mechanism
for momentum and energy transfer

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Laminar or Turbulent Flow
Reynolds Number
 The transition from laminar to turbulent flow depends on the geometry, surface roughness,
flow velocity, surface temperature, and type of fluid, among other things.
 The flow regime depends mainly on the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in the
fluid,
This ratio is called the Reynolds number

For internal flow in a circular pipe

 At large Reynolds numbers, high inertia and thus, the viscous forces cannot prevent
the random and rapid fluctuations of the fluid

 At small or moderate Reynolds numbers, the viscous forces are large enough to
suppress these
fluctuations and to keep the fluid in line 9
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Laminar or Turbulent Flow

Reynolds Number
 The Reynolds number at which the flow becomes turbulent is called the Critical Reynolds
Number, Recr

 The value of the critical Reynolds number is different for different geometries and
flow conditions
 For internal flow in a circular pipe

 For flow through noncircular pipes, the Reynolds number is based on the hydraulic
diameter
Dh defined as

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Laminar or Turbulent Flow

Example

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Example Cont.

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Example Cont.

 The maximum time to fill the glass will occur if the Reynolds number is the minimum
allowed
for turbulent flow

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Entrance and Fully Developed

The entrance region in a pipe flow is quite complex (1) to (2):

The fluid enters the pipe with nearly uniform flow.

The frictional effects are negligible
The viscous effects create a boundary layer that merges. and the velocity profile remains
essentially constant in the radial
When they merge the flow is fully developed.
direction (Irrotational flow region)
The viscous effects and the
velocity profile changes are
significant,

Uniform velocity
profile

Irrotational (core) flow

region, the frictional
effects are negligible
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Entrance and Fully Developed
and

 For very low Reynolds numbers (Re = 10), the entrance length is short:
 For large Reynolds number flow the entrance length can
be several pipe diameters:
 For many practical engineering problems:
Bends and T’s affect Fully Developed Flow:
 Pipe is fully developed until the character of the pipe
changes.
 It changes in the bend and becomes fully developed again after some length
after the bend.
 Many disruptions can cause the
flow to never be fully developed.

 In many flows, the fully developed

region is greater than the developing 15
region.
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Entrance and Fully Developed

Pressure and Shear Stress
 The hydrodynamic entry length is usually taken to be the distance from the pipe entrance to where
the wall shear stress (and thus the friction factor) reaches within about 2 percent of the fully
developed value.
 In the fully developed
flow region of a pipe, the
velocity profile does not
change downstream, and
thus the wall shear stress
remains constant as
well.
 The wall shear stress is the
highest at the pipe inlet
where the thickness of the
boundary layer is smallest,
and decreases gradually to
the fully developed value, 16
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Entrance and Fully Developed
Pressure and Shear Stress
 In non-fully developed
flow, the fluid accelerates
or decelerates as it flows

 In fully developed flow,

The fluid accelerates
viscous effects provide the
restraining force that
or decelerates as it
exactly balances the flows
pressure force, thereby
allowing the fluid to flow
through the pipe with no
acceleration

flow driving force

 The shear stress in laminar flow is a direct result of momentum transfer along the randomly moving
molecules (microscopic).
 The shear stress in turbulent flow is due to momentum transfer among the randomly moving,
finite-sized bundles of fluid particles (macroscopic).
 The physical properties of shear stress are quite different between the two. 17
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Entrance and Fully Developed

The need for the pressure drop can be viewed from two different standpoints

i. In terms of a force balance, the pressure force is needed to overcome the viscous forces
generated.
ii. In terms of an energy balance, the work done by the pressure force is needed to overcome the
viscous dissipation of energy throughout the fluid.

 If the pipe is not horizontal, the pressure gradient along it is due in part to the component of
weight in that direction.

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Fully Developed Flow
 If the flow is fully developed and steady, no part of the fluid experiences any
acceleration as it flows.

 Every part of the fluid merely flows along its path line parallel to the pipe walls with
constant velocity, although neighboring particles have slightly different velocities.
 The velocity varies from one path line to the next.
 This velocity variation, combined with the fluid viscosity, produces the shear stress

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Fully Developed Flow

 The pressure varies along the pipe from one section to the next. The pressure decreases in the
direction of flow
i.e., if the pressure is
 A shear stress, τ acts on the surface of the cylinder of fluid.

 This viscous stress is a function of the radius of the cylinder,

 In this case even though the fluid is moving, it is not accelerating

 Basic pipe flow is governed by a balance of viscous and pressure forces.

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Fully Developed Flow
 Fully developed horizontal pipe flow is merely a balance between pressure and viscous forces,
 The pressure difference acting on the end of the cylinder of area and
 The shear stress acting on the lateral surface of the cylinder of area

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Fully Developed Flow

Turbulent
profile

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Fully Developed Flow
 The equation indicates that for both laminar and turbulent fully developed flows the shear
stress varies linearly across the pipe, from zero at the centerline to a maximum at the pipe wall

Also

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Fully Developed Laminar Flow

 For laminar flow the stress equation is

 The two governing laws for fully developed laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid
within a horizontal pipe.
1. The one is Newton’s second law of motion and the other is
2. The definition of a Newtonian fluid.

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Fully Developed Laminar Flow

 At r = 0.0, the centerline velocity

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Fully Developed Laminar Flow

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Fully Developed Laminar Flow

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Fully Developed Laminar Flow

The Volumetric Flow Rate:

The average velocity is V

.

Hagen-Poiseuille Flow

α
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Fully Developed Flow
Inclined Pipes

Force balance in the direction of flow

For laminar flow

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Fully Developed Laminar Flow

 If the flow is downhill, gravity helps the flow

 If the flow is uphill, gravity works against the flow

Some general remarks:

1. The flow rate is directly proportional to the pressure drop.
2. The flow rate is inversely proportional to the viscosity.
3. The flow rate is inversely proportional to the pipe length.
4. The flow rate is directly proportional to the pipe diameter to the 4th power.
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Example

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Example Cont.

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Example Cont.

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Example

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Example Cont.

 Τhe pipe is horizontal and its diameter is constant, the pressure drop in the pipe is due
entirely
to the frictional losses and is equivalent to the pressure loss,

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Example

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Example Cont.

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Example Cont.
 The change in potential energy of the fluid “falling” down the hill that is converted to
the energy lost by viscous dissipation

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Turbulent Flow in Pipes
The importance of turbulence
 Just imagine some chemical impurity being emitted from the bottom of the pipe. This
chemical would only diffuse very, very slowly to the top of the pipe.
 In a turbulent flow regime, the impurity would be quickly carried to the top of the
pipe.
 Turbulence is very important for the mixing of dissolved substances in fluids. Why do
you stir your tea or coffee after you place the milk in?
 Turbulence flows also greatly promote heat transfer.
 In turbulent flow, the swirling eddies transport mass, momentum, and energy to other regions
of flow much more rapidly than molecular diffusion, greatly enhancing mass, momentum,
and heat transfer.

 Turbulent flow is associated with much higher values of friction, heat transfer, and mass
transfer coefficients
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Turbulent Flow in Pipes

- Turbulent flow in pipe (Re4000):

Random fluctuation of each velocity component in time and all directions.

-Unsteady flow.
- Good mixing.

u
Velocity is averaged in time:
tf
Vx

 V (t)dt
x
ti
u
T T=tf-ti

Vx : Axial velocity component

ti Time tf
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Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
Velocity Profile

Vx (t)

Turbulent Flow Laminar Flow

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Fully Developed Turbulent Flow

 Turbulent flow along a wall can be considered to consist of four regions, characterized by the
distance from the wall
1. Viscous (or laminar or linear or wall) sublayer: The
very thin layer next to the wall where viscous effects are
dominant (thickness < 1% of pipe diameter)
2. Buffer layer, in which turbulent effects are becoming
significant, but the flow is still dominated by viscous
effects.
3. Overlap (or transition) layer, also called the inertial
sublayer, in which the turbulent effects are much more Turbulent velocity profiles are
relatively flat in a pipe flow
significant, but still not dominant
4. Outer (or turbulent) layer in the remaining part of the
flow in which turbulent effects dominate over molecular
diffusion (viscous) effects.

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The Time-Average Velocity Profile
The time-averaged velocity profile for turbulent flow is:

“Empirical equation obtained from experimental measurements” n =

7 for many practical flows.

n, chosen based on the Reynolds number.

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The Time-Average Velocity Profile

 The power-law equation is not valid at the wall, since that would give an
infinite velocity gradient.
 Also, cannot be precisely valid near the centerline because the shear does not go
to zero at the center-line.
 The variation of power-Jaw exponent n with Reynolds number (based on pipe
diameter, D, and centerline velocity, U) for fully developed flow in smooth pipes
is given by

n  1.7  1.8 log J. O. Hinze

(Re U ) 4
For Re U  2 x 10

The value of n is related empirically to f by

n  f 1/ 2 44
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Fully Developed Turbulent Flow
Turbulent shear stress:
The turbulent shear components are known as Reynolds Stresses.

Shear Stress in Turbulent Flows: Turbulent

Velocity Profile:

In viscous sublayer: tlaminar > tturb 100 to 1000 times greater. In

the outer layer: ttruib > tlaminar 100 to 1000 time greater.

The viscous sublayer is extremely small. 45

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Energy (Head) Losses Due to Friction

• Energy loss through friction in the length of pipeline is commonly termed the major
loss hL
• This is the loss of head due to pipe friction and to the viscous dissipation in
flowing water.
• Several studies have been found the resistance to flow in a pipe is:

- Independent of pressure under which the water flows

- Linearly proportional to the pipe length, L
- Inversely proportional to some water power of the pipe diameter D
- Proportional to some power of the mean velocity, V
- Related to the properties of the fluid ()
- Related to the roughness of the pipe, if the flow is turbulent

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 Energy (Head) Losses Due to Friction
Hence, the resistance to flow in a pipe is a function of:

• The pipe length, L

• The pipe diameter, D
• The mean velocity, V
• The properties of the fluid ()
• The roughness of the pipe, (the flow is turbulent).

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Darcy’s Equation
Darcy found that w f is directly proportional to the square of average
velocity 2 and length of the pipe L and inversely proportional to the
u
radius of the pipe diameter R:
Lu 2 Lu
wf 2  wf  f
R R

L u2 L u2
“Darcy’s Equation”
wf  f Or hf  f
D 2 D
Where f is the proportionality constant which is friction factor and hf is the head
2 gdue to friction.
loss
 This equation applicable for all types of fully developed internal flows (laminar
or turbulent flows, circular or noncircular pipes, smooth or rough surfaces,
horizontal or inclined pipes) 48
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 Energy (Head) Losses Due to Friction
 Pressure drop ΔP is directly related to the power requirements of the fan or pump to
maintain flow

4 w
f  Shear stress acting on the wall
V 2 / 2 :
Kinetic energy of the fluid

hL : Represents the additional height that the fluid needs to be raised by a pump in order to
overcome the frictional losses in the pipe

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Friction Losses in Laminar Flow

 Then, the friction factor for fully developed laminar flow in a circular pipe,

32LV 64 L V 2
hL  
gD2 Re D 2g

Hence,

 In laminar flow, the friction factor is a function of the Reynolds number only and
is independent of the roughness of the pipe surface.

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Friction Losses in Laminar flow

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Laminar Flow in Noncircular Pipes

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Laminar Flow in Noncircular Pipes

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Friction Loss In Turbulent Flow

 Using Darcy equations we can calculate the friction losses in turbulent flow.

» or

o However, roughness is important in the viscous

sub-layer in turbulent flows, if it protrudes
sufficiently in this layer.

o In laminar flow, the viscous layer is so large, that

small roughness does not play a role.

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Friction Loss In Turbulent Flow
 The friction loss depends on the surface
roughness of the pipe as well as Reynolds number
(IN LAMINAR, LOSSES ONLY DEPEND ON THE
REYNOLD NUMBER)

 The є , the average wall roughness can be obtained from tables (experiment has been
conducted to determine the value). The average value is for new and clean pipe.

: Represent the ratio of the mean height of roughness of the pipe to the pipe
diameter

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Moody Chart
 It is possible to obtain a measure of the effective relative roughness of typical pipes
and thus to obtain the friction factor

“Moody Chart”

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 Marks Reynolds Number independence

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Moody Diagram –Important Observation

 The Moody chart is universally valid for all steady, fully developed,
incompressible pipe flows.
o For a given Reynolds number
of flow, as the relative
roughness is increased, the
friction factor f increases .

o For a given relative

roughness , the friction
factor f decreases with
increasing Reynolds
number until the zone of
complete turbulence is
reached.

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Moody Chart

o The transition region is shown in the

shaded area ( 2300<Re<4000)
o The friction factors alternate between
laminar and turbulent flow.
o For laminar flow, the friction factor
decreases with increasing Reynolds number,
and it is independent of surface roughness.

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Moody Chart

o Within the zone of complete

turbulence, the Reynolds
number has no effect on the
friction factor.
o As the relative roughness
increases, the value of the
Reynolds number at which the
zone of complete turbulence
begins also increases.
o The friction factor is a minimum
for a smooth pipe (but still not
zero because of the no-slip
condition) and increases with
roughness.

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Formula for Friction Factor
 Colebrook Relation for Non-Laminar part of the Moody Chart (curve fit):

Implicit relation required

iteration to find f

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Formula for Friction Factor

The Colebrook equation is reduced to

Von Karman equation
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Formula for Friction Factor
 An approximate explicit relation for f was given by

Or

S. E. Haaland P. K.
Swamee

 The results obtained from these relation are within 2 percent and 1 percent ,
respectively of those obtained from the Colebrook equation.
 It can be used as a good first guess for f
 For turbulent and transition region,

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Formula for Friction Factor

P. K. Swamee

 For turbulent flow in smooth pipes (ε/D = 0) with 4000 < NR < 105 , the
Blasius correlation can be used 0.316
f
N 1/ 4
R

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Relative Roughness of New Pipes

Roughness value, є for new and clean pipe

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Relative roughness of new pipes

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Relative Roughness of New Pipes.

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Relative roughness of new pipes.

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 Types of Fluid Flow Problems
 Three types of problems for uniform flow in a single pipe:

Type 1: Given ( u or Q, L, D) Compute head loss (h L )

Direct solution

Type 2: Given (L, D, h L ) Compute flow rate ( u or Q)

Trial-and-error

 Type 3: Given (L, u or Q, h L ) Compute diameter of pipe (D)

Trial-and-error

 Type 4: Given (D, u or Q, h ) Compute pipe length (L)

L

Direct solution
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Example
 Water at 10C is flowing at a rate of 0.03 m3/s through a pipe. The pipe
has 150-mm diameter, 500 m long, and the surface roughness is estimated
at 0.06 mm. Find the head loss and the pressure drop throughout the
length of the pipe.
Solution:
 From Table (for water):  = 1000 kg/m3 and  =1.30x10-3 N.s/m2
V = Q/A and A=R2
A = (0.15/2)2 = 0.01767 m2
V = Q/A =0.03/.0.01767 =1.7 m/s
Re = (1000x1.7x0.15)/(1.30x10 -3) = 1.96x105 > 2000 
turbulent flow

To find f, use Moody Diagram with Re and relative roughness (ε/D).

ε/D = 0.06x10-3/0.15 = 4x10-4

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Example Cont,d
From Moody diagram, f  0.018
The head loss may be computed using the Darcy-Weisbach
equation.

L V2 2
500 x1.7
h  f  0.018 x 
8.84m.
L
D 2g 0.15 x 2 x 9.81

The pressure drop along the pipe can be calculated using the relationship:

ΔP=ghf = 1000 x 9.81 x 8.84

ΔP = 8.67 x 104 Pa

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Example

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Example Cont.

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Tel.

Example Cont.

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Example
Determine energy loss due to friction and pressure drop for a flow of a Newtonian fluid
(= 0.09 kg/m.s and =750 kg/m3) through glass pipe of a length of 10 m and 100-mm-
diameter in the following two cases:
(a) Volumetric flow rate is 14 L/s
hL =?Type 1 problem
(b) Volumetric flow rate is 80 L/s

= / =1.2 10-4 m2/s ; D=0.1m ; L=10 m.

Glass has smooth surface  =0

(a) Volumetric flow rate is 14 L/s: Q  0.014 m3 /s

u  Q / A  4Q D 2 1.782 m/s

Re  u D /  1485 Laminar flow: =0 and

Re2300
64 75
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Example cont.d
L u2
hL  f  0.697 m
D 2g
h  128 LQ (D 4 g ) 
Or use: 0.697 m
L

P  h  P  gh  5120.5 Pa
L L
g

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Example cont.d
(b) Volumetric flow rate is 80 L/s: Q  0.08 m 3 /s

u  Q / A  4Q D 2 10.186 m/s

Re  uD /  8.510 3 Turbulent flow: Re>4000

Re  8.5  10
 0.032 from Moody diagram : f

 / D  0 (smooth)
L u2
hL  f 16.92 m
D 2g

P1  P2  ghL 
124.5 kPa
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Example
Determine energy losses and pressure drop for a flow of 140 L/s of oil ( =
0.008 kg/m.s and =800 kg/m3 through ductile iron-uncoated pipe with a length
of 400 m and 200-mm-diameter.
hL=?Type 1 problem

Q=140 L/s=0.14 m3/s; = / =0.00001 m2/s; D=0.2m; L=400 m From previous a
table ductile iron-uncoated has a roughness of =2.4 10-4 m.

u  Q / A  4Q D 2  4.456 m/s
0.023

 / D  0.0012

f
78
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Example cont.d
and the head loss is:
2
L u
h  f

46.55m
L
D
2g

Apply MEB to find pressure drop across the pipe:

P  h  P  gh  365.3 kPa
L L
g

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Example
Example. Water at 15 oC flows through 300-mm diameter riveted steel pipe with
head loss of 6 m cross a length of 300 m. Find the volumetric flow rate.

Q=? Type 2 problem

From physical properties table of water at 15 oC: =1.1310-6 m2/s. From
previous table riveted steel has =1.810-3 m.

D=0.3 m; L=300 m; hf=6 m

Trial-and-error method: Use Darcy Eq. to relate u with f:

L u2
hL  f
D 2g

2hL gD
u  
0.3431 80
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Example cont.d

Take trial f value from moody diagram: f = 0.01

0.3431
Find : u   3.43 m/s
0.01

Find : uD 5

Re   9.11 10
 from Moody diagram : f
 0.032
 / D  0.006

0.3431
Recalculate : u   1.918 m/s
0.032 81
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Example cont.d
Recalculate :
Re  uD  5.1 10

diagram :  0.032 from Moody
5
f
 / D  0.006
Since this f value is similar to the previous one, stop iterations:
 D2
u  1.918  Q  u  0.136 m 3 /s
 136 L/s 4

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Example Cont.
Iteration loop
2hL gD
u
fL

1. Guess a value of f
2. calculate V
3. calculate Reynolds number
4. Estimate the a corrected friction factor using Moody chart or the Colebrook
equation or Haaland equation.
5. Repeat the calculations with the corrected value of f until convergence

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Example
Example. Determine the diameter of commercial steel pipe required to convey 4000
gpm of oil (=110-4 ft2/s) for a length of 10000 ft with head loss of 75 ft.
D=? Type 3 problem
From previous table, commercial steel has =1.510-4 ft, L=10000 ft; hf=75 ft

3
gal 1ft 1min
Q  4000  8.913ft 3 /s
min 7.48 gal 60 s
The strategy for solving type 3 problem is to relate
the unknown D with f through Darcy Eq.
L u2

hL  f
L 4Q D 2 
2

 f
D 2g 84
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2g
Example cont.d
Take trial f value from moody diagram: f = 0.01

Find : D  3.876 5 f  1.543 ft

Find : u  4Q / D 2  4.767 ft/s

uD 4

Find : Re   7.35  10
 from Moody diagram : f  0.019
 / D  0.00011

Recalculated : D  3.876 5 f  1.754 ft

Recalculate : u  4Q / D 2  3.688 ft/s

uD 4

Recalculate : Re   6.47  10
 from Moody diagram : f  85
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 / D  0.00011  D  1.7725 ft

Explicit Relations for Fluid Flow Problems

 To avoid tedious iterations in head loss, flow rate, and diameter calculations, Swamee and
Jain proposed the following explicit relations that are accurate to within 2 percent of the
Moody chart.

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Minor Losses
 The head loss in long, straight sections of pipe can be calculated by use of the friction factor
obtained from either the Moody chart or the Colebrook equation.
 The fluid in a typical piping system passes through various fittings, valves, bends, elbows,
tees, inlets, exits, enlargements, and contractions in addition to the pipes.
 These components interrupt the smooth flow of the
fluid and cause additional losses because of the flow
separation and mixing they induce

 The loss coefficient of the

component (such as the gate
valve shown) is determined by
measuring the additional pressure
loss it causes and dividing it by
the dynamic pressure in the pipe.

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Minor Losses

guide vanes
large eddies (flow separation)  Eddies in the base leg and vena
 Within these eddies mechanical energy is converted into contracta are eliminated. The result is
heat through viscous dissipation; thus flow separation and a smaller loss of mechanical energy
eddy formation is a key mechanism in the minor head loss than in an abrupt turn without guide
 The eddies also decrease the effective cross-sectional area vanes.
of the passage because there is no net flow downstream  Smaller loss of mechanical energy
through them 88
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Minor Losses

 Reducing head loss by employing a gradual bend  If guide vanes are added to the bend (there is no
 No corner in which eddies form, and the eddies in flow separation at all and the minor head loss is
the base leg are less intense than those in the further reduced
elbow

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Minor Losses

 For many practical applications the Reynolds number is large enough so that the flow through
the component is dominated by inertia effects, with viscous effects being of secondary
importance

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Minor Losses
 Where f is the friction factor and D is the diameter of the pipe that contains the component.
 The head loss caused by the component is equivalent to the head loss caused by a section
of the pipe whose length is Lequiv.

 The contribution of a component to the head loss can be accounted for by simply adding
Lequiv
to the total pipe length.

i pipe sections j components

 If the piping system has constant diameter

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Minor Losses

The head loss at the inlet of a pipe is

almost negligible for well-
rounded inlets (KL = 0.03 for r/D >
0.2) but increases to about 0.50 for
sharp-edged inlets.

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Minor Losses

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Minor Losses

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Minor Losses

Loss coefficient for sudden

enlargement.

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Minor Losses

Loss coefficient for gradual

enlargement.

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Minor Losses

Sudden contraction
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Minor Losses
o As the cone angle of the
contraction decreases, the
resistance coefficient actually
increases
o The reason is that the data
include the effects of both the
local turbulence caused by flow
separation and pipe friction.
o For the smaller cone angles, the
transition between the two
diameters is very long, which
increases the friction losses.

Gradual contraction
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Minor Losses
Gradual contraction

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Minor Losses

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Minor Losses

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Minor Losses

The losses during changes of direction can

be minimized by making the turn “easy”
on the fluid by using circular arcs instead
of sharp turns.

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Minor Losses
Character of the flow in a 90° bend and the associated loss coefficient

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Minor Losses

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Minor Losses

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Pipe Flow Analysis

 Pipeline system used in water distribution,

industrial application and in many
engineering systems may range from simple
arrangement to extremely complex one.
 Problems regarding pipelines are usually
tackled by the use of continuity and energy
equations.

P1 V2 P V2  hL
g z 1  2g  h pump,u
1
 g z 2  2g hturbine,e
2 2

 The head loss due to friction and minor losses must be computed

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Pipe Flow Analysis
Pipes in Series
 When two or more pipes of different diameters or roughness are connected in such a
way that the fluid follows a single flow path throughout the system, the system
represents a series pipeline.
 In a series pipeline the total energy loss is the sum of the individual minor losses
and all pipe friction losses.

Pipelines in series
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Pipe Flow Analysis

The MEE equation can be written between points 1 and 2 as
follows;
P1 2
V 2
P V
h
g z1  2g
1
 hpump,u  2
 z2  2
2g hturbine,e 1 2

L  g
where P/g = pressure head
z = elevation head
V2/2g = velocity head
= total energy lost between point 1 and 2
hL1-2
Realizing that P1=P2=Patm, and V1=V2, then equation reduces to

z1-z2 = hL1-2
Or we can say that the different of reservoir water level is equivalent to the
total head losses in the system.
The total head losses are a combination of the all the friction losses and the
sum of the individual minor losses.
hL1-2 = hfa + hfb + hentrance + hvalve + hexpansion + hexit.
Since the same discharge passes through all the pipes, the continuity
equation can be written as; 108
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Pipe Flow Analysis
Pipes in Parallel

 A combination of two or more pipes connected between two points so that the
discharge divides at the first junction and rejoins at the next is known as pipes in
parallel. Here the head loss between the two junctions is the same for all pipes.

Pipelines in parallel

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Pipe Flow Analysis

 Applying the continuity equation to the system;
Q1 = Qa + Qb = Q2 (I)
 The energy equation between point 1 and 2 can
be writtenP1as; 2 P 2
 z1  V 1  2  z 2  V2  hL
g 2g g 2g
 The head losses throughout the system are given by;
(II)
hL1-2= hLa = hLb

 Equations (I) and (II) are the governing relationships for parallel
pipe line systems. The system automatically adjusts the flow in
each branch until the total system flow satisfies these equations.

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Example

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Example Cont.

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Example

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Example Cont.

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Example Cont.

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Example
A 5-in-diameter pipe with an estimated f of 0.033 is 110 feet long
and connects two reservoirs whose surface elevations differ by
12 feet. The pipe entrance is flushed, and the discharge is
submerged.
(a) Compute the flow rate.
(b) How much would the flow rate change if the last 10 ft of the
pipe were replaced with a smooth conical diffuser with a cone
angle of 10o?

5"  0.417 ft

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Example Cont.

2
2
l V2 V l V
a  h h h  f  0.5 1  f 1.5 
 

2 ghL t, ot 2 32.2 ft/s 2 12 ft 

V    8.70 ft/s
fl
 1.5 0.033110 ft   1.5
D 0.417 ft
 0.417 4 ft  2 117


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
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Q  VA  8.70 ft/s  1.19 ft 3 /s

Example Cont.

b hL,tot  hL, pipe  hL,entrance  hL,cone  hL,exit

l V2 V2
 f 1 1
 k entrance 1 V
 k cone
1 V 
2
2
V2
 k exit 2

D 2g 2g 2g 2g
1

D  D  2L tan 5o  0.417 ft  2
10 ft 0.0875   2.17 ft
2 1 cone

2
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
  0.0370
  
V
Example Cont.

l V2 V2 V V  2
V
2
hL,tot  f 1 1
k entrance
1
k cone
1 2
k exit
2

D 2g 2g 2g 2g
1

2 2
100 ft V1 V1
 0.033   0.5
0.417 ft 2g 2g
V  0.037V
 
2 0.037V 2
 0.175 1 1

1.0 1

2g

2g
119

V  9.49 ft/s
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 0.417 ft 2
Q  V1 A  9.49 ft/s  1.29 ft 3 /s
4

Example
In the figure shown: Where the discharge through the system is 0.05 m3/s, the total
losses through the pipe is 10 v2/2g where v is the velocity of water in 0.15 m diameter
pipe, the water in the final outlet exposed to atmosphere.

Calculate the required height (h =?) below the tank

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Example Cont.
V Q  0.05
A
2 

2.83m / s 0.05
V  Q  4 0.15  6.366m /
s
A 
p V 24 0.102 p V2
1 1 2 2

2
2
 20 
2 *9.81
2 *9.81
h  21.147m

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Example

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Example Cont.

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Example Cont.

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Example Cont.

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Example Cont.

The discharged water starts to refill the reservoir,

resulting in parallel flow after the tee
connection.

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Example Cont.

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Example Cont.

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