Agenda

1) Linkers: explaining
2) Linkers: examples
3) Linker to express causes
4) Essay Analysis
Linkers: Explaining
1) this means that / which means that used when saying what the results or effects of what you have
just said are:
e.g. Computer technology is constantly being improved. This means that the computer that you have just
bought will probably be out of date in only a few months' time.

e.g. There is a shortage of hospital doctors, which means that patients often have to wait a long time for
treatment.

e.g. The bank's current interest rate is 3.5%. This means that for every £100 you have in your savings
account, you will get £3.50 in interest.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar

You use This means that at the beginning of a sentence. You use which means that at the beginning of a
clause.
2) that is used when explaining the meaning of the previous word or phrase, by giving
more information:
e.g. The book is about art in the modern period, that is, art since 1900.
e.g. Her son suffers from Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. That is, he finds it difficult to pay
attention or stay quiet for more than a short period of time.

3) Ie /i.e. used when explaining the meaning of the previous word or phrase, by giving
more information:
e.g. The new law will come into force at the end of next month, ie March 31st.
e.g. There has been a decline in the number of 'good' jobs, i.e. ones that are highly skilled and
well-paid.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar

ie is the abbreviation for id est, which is Latin for that is.
In formal essay writing, it is usually better to use that is.
4) in other words / to put it another way used when saying something in a different way, either in
order to explain it more clearly, or to emphasize the point that you want to make:

e.g. Average incomes fell, while the incomes of the top 20 percent of the population increased. In other words,
the rich got richer.

e.g. In a democracy, the government must be accountable to the people. The people should, in other words, be
able to get rid of their rulers through elections.

e.g. Using this software would offer a 15% saving in space. To put it another way, this will
mean an extra 12Gb free on an 80Gb disk.
5) To put it simply used when saying something in a simple way so that
the reader can understand what you mean:
e.g. What the treatment aims to do, to put it simply, is to make the skin
grow back over the wound.

e.g. A romantic novel should demand a certain level of emotional

involvement on the part of the reader. To put it simply, the novel should
not just describe a love relationship; it should allow the reader to participate
in it.
Linkers: Giving Example
for example used when giving an example of the kind of thing that you have just
mentioned:
e.g. People watch huge amounts of television. In the United States, for example,
many children spend more hours watching television than they do attending school.

e.g. A lot of English words come from Latin. For example 'homicide' comes from the
Latin words 'homo' (=man) and 'cidium' (=killing).

STUDY NOTE: Grammar

In essays, for example is often used later on in a sentence, rather than at the
beginning:
The influence of Eastern music can be heard in Western classical music, for
example in the piano works of Debussy.
The abbreviation of for example is eg. In formal essays you usually use the full
phrase for example.
for instance means the same as for example, but it is slightly less formal:
e.g. Our climate is already showing signs of change. Last year, for instance, was one of the
hottest summers on record.

e.g. There is a great deal we can do to reduce the amount of pollution we produce. For
instance, we can use our cars less, and use public transport instead.

particularly / in particular adverb used when saying that something is especially

true about someone or something:
e.g. Tourism is very important for the economy, particularly in the south of the country.

e.g. His work had a big influence on Picasso in particular.

be a good / typical / classic / obvious etc example:
e.g. The United Kingdom is a good example of a country that consists of several smaller
states.
e.g. Her case is a classic example of this kind of problem.

be a case in point used when saying that something is a very good and relevant example of the
kind of thing that you have just mentioned:

e.g. Many native English plants and animals are under threat. The red squirrel is a case in
point.
e.g. The government has consistently ignored basic human rights. A case in point is the
recent killing of 10 political prisoners.
take / consider verb [transitive] used when you are about to talk about a particular
situation that you want to show as an example:

e.g. Science has yet to answer some important questions. Take, for instance, (=consider
the following example) the theory that the universe started with the 'big bang'. What came before
the big bang?

e.g. Many students are bored with their studies. Consider the case of Christina. She is a
hard-working student who plans to go to college. Yet she says of her education, "It's not like I'm
thinking a lot here."

STUDY NOTE: Grammar

Take and consider are always used at the start of a sentence.
including preposition used when you want to give examples of the kinds of thing that
something includes:
e.g. She has many interests, including opera and ballet.
e.g. The company produces 340 drugs and cosmetic products, including penicillin, antibiotics
and aspirins.

to name but a few used after examples of something, when saying that there are
many more that you could mention:
e.g. He wrote several famous books: '1984', 'Animal Farm', and 'The Road to Wigan Pier', to
name but a few.

such as used when giving one or two typical examples of the kind of thing or person
that you mean, when there are many other examples:
e.g. The factory produced electrical goods such as washing machines and cookers.
e.g. Girls do better than boys in subjects such as English.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar

Such as does not usually have a comma before it, whereas for example and including
usually do.
Linker to express causes
 1. To cause something to happen

make verb [transitive] to make something happen, or make someone do something:

e.g. Plants need light and heat to make them grow.
e.g. He was good at making people laugh.
e.g. The government's economic policies made it unpopular with voters.
e.g. Inventions such as the washing machine have made people's lives a lot easier.

STUDY NOTE: Grammar

Don't say 'make somebody/something to do something'. For example don't say 'What
makes young people to commit crime?' Say: What makes young people commit crime?
2) Cause verb [transitive] to make something happen, or make someone do something:
e.g. Smoking causes cancer.
e.g. The lack of rain is causing problems for farmers.
e.g. The crisis caused oil prices to go up dramatically.
e.g. At first, the news caused people to panic.
STUDY NOTE: Grammar
Cause is often used about bad things, for example: High fat diets can cause heart disease. Cause is also often
used in scientific and technical descriptions, when saying that something has a particular effect, for
example: The heat causes the ink and powder to mix together, and an image is formed. Cause is more formal
than make
3) Lead to verb [intransitive] to start a process that later makes something happen:
e.g. The research could eventually lead to a cure for many serious illnesses.
e.g. Over-fishing has led to a collapse in the numbers of tuna and cod in the Atlantic.
e.g. Cutting spending budgets will inevitably lead to poorer quality public services.

4) Result in phrasal verb to make something happen, especially something bad:

e.g. Many household fires result in death or serious injury.
e.g. Low levels of vitamin D can result in a softening of the bones.
e.g. The trial resulted in Oscar Wilde being sent to prison for 2 years.

5) Create verb [transitive] to make a condition, situation, problem, or feeling start to exist:
e.g. In the novel, McEwan creates an atmosphere of menace.
e.g. Science and technology often create more problems than they solve.
e.g. The coach' s job is to create the conditions for success.
6) bring about phrasal verb to make something happen, especially a change or an improved situation:
e.g. The war brought about enormous social change.
e.g. So far, all attempts to bring about peace have failed.

7) give rise to a formal phrase, used when an event, action etc makes a feeling or
problem start to exist:
e.g. Poor performance in exams can give rise to depression and even thoughts of suicide.
e.g. The announcement gave rise to violent protest in the east of the country.
e.g. Drinking unfiltered water can give rise to health problems.

8) be responsible for to be the person or thing that makes something happen:

e.g. The human rights panel concluded that the military was responsible for killings, torture and other abuses.
e.g. These particles are responsible for making new protein molecules.
2. Ways of saying that something is caused by another
thing

1) be caused by:
e.g. Many illnesses are caused by stress.
e.g. Almost half of all accidents are caused by speeding. (=driving too fast)
2) be the result of / result from to happen because of something else that happened or was done:
e.g. He said the success of his company was the result of hard work by all the staff.
e.g. Greenhouse gases are the direct result of pollution from cars and factories.
e.g. Meningitis results from an inflammation around the brain.
e.g. These conditions result from a combination of economic and social factors.
3) arise from verb [intransitive] if a problem or a serious situation arises from something, it starts
to happen because of it:
e.g. A number of problems arose from the break-up of the former Soviet Union.
e.g. People are now much more aware of the dangers arising from asbestos dust.

4) stem from phrasal verb if something stems from another thing, it develops from it and there is a
direct link with it, even though this link is not always immediately obvious
e.g. His emotional problems stemmed from an unhappy childhood.
e.g. The present difficulties stem from the recession and the collapse of the housing
market.
3. To be one of the things that cause something to happen

1) play a part if something plays a part, it is one of several things that causes
something to happen:
e.g. No one knows exactly what causes the disease. Genetic factors are thought to play a part.
e.g. The rioting in the capital played a major part in the collapse of the government.
be a factor to be one of several things that affect something:
e.g. Public pressure against nuclear power was definitely a factor in their decision.
e.g. The parent's influence is a major factor in a child's progress at school. (=a very
important factor)
2) contribute to verb [intransitive] if something contributes to a situation, it is one of the things that cause that
situation to happen or become worse, but it is not one of the main causes:
e.g. Methane gas is known to contribute to the greenhouse effect.
e.g. Television often gets blamed for contributing to the decline of family life.
e.g. Passive smoking could contribute to the development of respiratory diseases among nonsmokers.
e.g. It is acknowledged that unhappiness is a contributing factor in the development of certain illnesses.

3) influence verb [transitive] if something influences another thing, it has an effect on it, although it does not cause
it directly:
e.g. Weber demonstrated that culture and religion influenced economic development.
e.g. Genetic factors may influence how the central nervous system reacts to nicotine.