Water Distribution

Layout and design of water

transmission works and distribution
networks, service reservoirs

Engr. Abdus Salam Assistant Professor

University of Engineering and Technology Peshawar Campus III Bannu KP Pakistan
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Water Distribution

• A water distribution system is a part of water supply network with components

that carry potable water from a centralized treatment plant or wells to water
consumers in order to adequately deliver water to satisfy residential, commercial,
industrial and fire fighting requirements.

• World Health Organization (WHO) uses the term water transmission system for a

network of pipes, generally in tree-like structure that is used to convey water
from water treatment plants to service reservoirs,

• and uses the term water distribution system for a network of pipes that

generally has a loop structure to supply water from the service reservoirs and 
balancing reservoirs to water consumers.
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Methods of Water Distribution

Depending upon the topography of the country, any one of the following three
methods may be adopted for distribution of water.

1. Gravity system

2. Gravity and pumping systems combined

3. Pumping system
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1. Gravity system
• Gravity system is suitable when
source of supply is at sufficient
height.
• Most reliable and economical
distribution system.
• The water head available at the
consumer is just minimum
required.
• The remaining head is
consumed in the frictional and
other losses.
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2. Gravity system and Pumping systems
combined.
• Most common system of water
distribution.
• Treated water is pumped and stored
in an elevated reservoir.
• Then the water is supplied to the
consumers by action of gravity.
• The excess water during low demand
period is stored in reservoir and
supplied during high demand period.
• Economical, efficient and reliable
system.
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3. Pumping systems.
• Treated water is directly pumped
in to the distribution main
without storing.
• High lift pumps are required.

• If power supply fails, complete

stoppage of water supply.
• This method is not generally used.
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Service reservoirs

• Transmission mains convey treated water from the water treatment works to the
service reservoir throughout all, or most of, the day.

• However, as with the demand for electricity or gas, the demand for water varies
with the time of day.

• The variations are greater in small networks.

• Typically, the water demand at night is about 20% less than the average daily
demand, whereas the peak demand, occurring around midday, is about 40%
greater than the average daily demand.
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Service reservoirs

• Figure 38(a) shows the cumulative volume

of water entering and leaving a service
reservoir during the day.

• The straight line of constant slope

represents the constant rate of inflow
(supply) to the reservoir, and the variable
line running at first below and then above
the supply line represents the changing
demand from the reservoir.

• Figure 38(a) is an example of a mass

diagram for a reservoir. The effect of
variations between supply and demand on
the level of water in the reservoir is shown
in Figure 38(b).
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Service reservoirs

• For example, starting at midnight, the water level in the reservoir is H. During the
early hours of the morning, supply exceeds demand and the water level in the
reservoir increases. By 0600 hours the level has reached a maximum value H + h1.

• This corresponds to the situation shown on the mass diagram where 1100 m 3 has
been supplied to the reservoir, whereas only 500 m3 has been withdrawn. This
represents a surplus V1 of 600 m3.

• After 0600 hours the rate of demand increases (as the nation awakes) and by
1500 hours the level in the reservoir has returned to its initial level H with supply
matching demand exactly.

• By early evening the situation has reversed. At 2000 hours, the mass diagram
shows that the deficit V2 between the amount of water supplied and that
withdrawn is 400 m3, at which time the water in the reservoir has reached its
lowest level, H − h2.
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Service reservoirs

• Thereafter, water demand 'eases off' again with the water level in the reservoir
rising back to its initial level at midnight.

• The volume V1 + V2 is called the equalizing storage, because it performs the

function of equalizing supply and demand.

• Without equalizing storage the transmission mains would need to be large enough
to cope with peak demand and would be underutilized most of the time.

• With a service reservoir the transmission mains need only carry the average daily
demand (together with an extra 15–25% to account for leakage).

• Extra capacity may be incorporated in a service reservoir, in addition to equalizing

storage, for emergency and fire-fighting use. Such an extra capacity is shown in
Figure 38(b).
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Service reservoirs

• Usually, service reservoirs are constructed of concrete and frequently, for reasons
of both economy and appearance, they are sunk wholly or partly below ground
level.

• The reservoir needs to be positioned with sufficient elevation to provide an

adequate flow to the distribution area and to raise the water to the top of
buildings.

• In flat areas, where elevated sights for ground level tanks are not available, or
where it is necessary to supply tall buildings, water towers may be used.

• In exceptional cases, tall buildings may require their own system of pumps to raise
water to the top.
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Types of water supply in water distribution system

In a water distribution system the supply may be of two types.

1. Continuous water supply

2. Intermittent water supply

1. Continuous Supply

• In this case water is available for 24 hours. So the system is always under
pressure.

• So there is no chance of infiltration i.e, negative pressure cannot occur and as a

result the quality of water is better.

• As the supply is continuous, so there is more consumption of water and less

chances of contamination.

• If the supply of water is cut off for half an hour daily, then supply cannot be called
as continuous supply.
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Types of water supply in water distribution system

2. Intermittent supply

• In this case, water is supplied at regular intervals throughout the day.

• For example water may be supplied for a few hours in the morning and few hours
in the evening.

• As it is not continuous supply so the consumption is less.

• Due to negative pressure, the quality of water is not so good as compared to the
case of continuous supply
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Methods of Setting Water Distribution System Layouts

Different methods of laying out distribution system are as follows:

1. Dead end system

2. Grid iron system

3. Ring system

4. Radial system
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1. Dead End Water Distribution System

• Dead end system, the name itself defining that it contains dead ends in the pipe
system.

• So, the water does not flow continuously in the dead end system.

• In this system the whole pipe network is divided into several sub networks.

• Those are namely main line, sub mains, branch lines and service connections.

• Firstly, one main line is laid through the center of the city or area.

• Sub mains are laid on both sides of the main line and then sub mains divided
into branch lines from which service connections are given.

• At every starting point of sub main line, a cut off valve is provided to regulate
the flow during repair works etc.
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• On the whole, this
network diagram will look
like a tree shape, so it is
also called as tree system.

• This type of system is used

mostly for the olden cities
which are built in irregular
manner without any
planning. Now a days, this
system is not preferable.
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Advantages of Dead End System

• Pipes in this network can be laid easily.

• The pressure and discharge in each pipe can be determined very easily and
accurately which makes design calculations very simple.

• The diameters of pipes of main, sub mains and branches can be designed based on
the required demand of population. So, cost of the project can be reduced.

• Dead end system requires less number of cutoff valves.

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Disadvantages of Dead End System

• The pressure is not constant and is very less at remote parts.

• Because of dead ends water stagnation takes place which results in deposition of
sediment. To remove this sediments, more number of scour valves are to be
provided at the dead ends which increase economy.

• If any damage occurs in the branch line, the whole portion should be stopped to
repair that which creates discomfort to the other users in that sub main line.

• In this system, Limited discharge is available for firefighting.

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2. Grid Iron Water Distribution System

• Grid iron system also contains main

lines, sub mains and branch lines.

• But in this system dead ends are

eliminated by interconnecting all the
lines.

• Hence, the water flow continuously

in this system without stagnating.

• So, this system is also called as

interlaced system or reticulation
system.

• It is more suitable for well-planned

cities.
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Advantages of Grid Iron System

• Water will flow continuously without any dead ends or sediment deposits.

• Head loss is minimum in this case because of interconnection of pipes.

• The discharge will meet the required discharge for firefighting.

• Repair works can be easily done just by closing cutoff valve in that line which do
not affect the other users.
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• Disadvantages of Grid Iron System

• Because of circulating flow from all directions, the pipes used in this system should
be of large diameters and longer lengths.

• We cannot determine the accurate discharge, velocity or pressure in a particular

pipe. So, design is difficult.

• Laying of pipes will be done by skilled workers which consume more cost.

• Cutoff valves required should be more in this system.

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3. Ring Water Distribution System

• Ring system, can also be called as

circular system in which the main
pipe line is provided around the city
or area i.e., peripherally.

• From this main line, the branch

lines are projected perpendicularly
and they are also connected with
each other.

• So, every street of the distributed

area will get sufficient quantity of
water. For a town with well-
planned streets and roads, Circular
system is more suitable.
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Advantages of Ring System

• No stagnation of water

• Repair works can be done without affecting larger network.

• Large quantity of water is available for firefighting.

Disadvantages of Ring System

• Longer length and large diameter pipes are required.

• More number of cutoff valves are necessary.

• Skilled workers are necessary while laying pipes.

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4. Radial Water Distribution System

• Radial system is quite opposite to the ring system.

• In this system, whole area is divided into small

distribution districts or zones and an individual
distribution reservoir is provided for each
distribution zone.

• The reservoir provided is generally of elevated

type.

• From this reservoir the pipe lines are laid radially

to the surrounded streets.

• All distribution reservoirs are connected with

main line which is passing through center of the
city.

• This type of system is suitable for areas with

radially designed roads.
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Advantages of Radial System

• The water distributed with high velocity and high pressure.

• Head loss is very small because of quick discharge.

Disadvantages of Radial System

• Cost of the project is more because of number of individual distribution reservoirs.

 Water Distribution
How can I test my water pressure?

• There is a simple way to accurately measure your water pressure:

• Get a water jug (preferably 1 or 2 litres in size)

• Get a stopwatch (usually found on most mobile phones)

• Place your jug under a tap and turn it on

• Time 6 seconds on your stopwatch & turn your tap off.

• Take the amount of water in the jug in litres (e.g. 0.8 litres) and multiply this by
10. This will give you your flow rate in litres per minute (e.g. 0.8 litres x 10 = 8
litres per minute).

• If your flow rate is less than 10 litres per minute, you have what is considered
low water pressure. Anywhere between 10 - 15 litres per minute is acceptable,
but can be improved. A flow above 15 litres per minute is considered good.
 Analysis of water distribution network
Hardy-Cross Method for analysis of pipe network

• The Hardy Cross method is an application of continuity of flow and 

continuity of potential to iteratively solve for flows in a pipe network. 

• In the case of pipe flow, conservation of flow means that the flow-in is equal to
the flow-out at each junction in the pipe.

• Conservation of potential means that the total directional head loss along any
loop in the system is zero (assuming that a head loss counted against the flow is
actually a head gain).

• Inputs and out puts are known, but the flow inside is unknown.
 Analysis of water distribution network
Hardy-Cross Method for analysis of pipe network

According to Darcy-Weisbach equation.

Therefore, hf α Q 2

hf = r Q 2
Or
Q2 α 1/r (Greater will be the flow for smaller value of r)

Where r is constant and depends on the properties of pipe.

 Analysis of water distribution network
Hardy-Cross Method for analysis of pipe network

Steps to be followed in Hardy-Cross Method

1. Identify loop(s).

2. Assume flow distribution such that it satisfy the continuity equation.

3. Compute head loss for each pipe. (hf = r Q2 )

4. Compute the net head loss.

5. If hf is not zero, correction ΔQ = (∑ r QA2 ) / (∑ 2 r QA) is applied.

(If ΔQ is positive the value is to be subtracted from positive discharges and vice versa)

6. Repeat the process till ΔQ becomes negligible.

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Steps

1. Here We have two loops. Loop ABC and

Loop BDC

2. Assuming the flow distribution such that it

satisfy the continuity equation.

3. Assume greater value of Q in the pipe

whose r is less.

Let Q AB = 57 m3/s

Then Q AC = 100 - 57 = 43 m3/s

Similarly

Let Q BD = 20 m3/s

Then Q BC = 57-20-20 = 17 m3/s

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Steps

Similarly

Q CD = (43+17)-30 = 30 m3/s

and Q BD +Q CD = 20 + 30 = 50 m3/s

Continuity equation is satisfied.

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Now computing ΔQ and applying correction and repeat the process of iteration.

Using M.S. Excel or Calculator.

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Now final flow distribution with the help of neat sketch is given below.

20 17 50
m3/s m3/s m3/s
B D Pipe Q m3/s

AB 58 m3/s
33
21 BC 21 m3/s
58 m3/s
m3/s m3/s
AC 42 m3/s
30
BD 17 m3/s
C m3/s
A
42 CD 33 m3/s
100 m3/s
m3/s
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Assignment # 2 Due Date : Next Friday 25 th June 2021

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• Water pressure ( psi )
o 1 psi = 2.31 feet of water 1in
1in
Proof: Volume of the column of water in the fig.
V = 1ft x 1in x 1in =12in x1in x 1in = 12 in3
Now Density of water
ρw = m/V
1ft
62.4 lb/ft3 = m/ (12 in3)
62.4/(123) lb/ in3 = m/ (12 in3)
0.03611 lb/ in3 = m/ (12 in3)
12x 0.03611 lb = m
0.433 lb = m
So this 1 ft head or column of water will
produce 0.433 psi OR 1psi = 2.31feet of water
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Capacity and elevation of overhead water tank of Bannu Campus:

Work out the days and pressure at faucets of the ground floor,
first floor and second floor of the hostels of the existing overhead
water tank of Bannu campus, if
Elevation of the tank = 75 ft
Capacity of the tank = 75000 gallons (1US gallons = 3.785 liters)
Population of the campus = 500 people (1Imperial gallons = 4.546
l )

Assume, Water demand to be = 120 lpcd

elevation of faucets at ground floor = 4ft
elevation of faucets at first floor = 15ft
elevation of faucets at second floor = 26ft
Neglect the losses.
Does the pressure meat the required desirable limit?
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Capacity and elevation of overhead water tank of Bannu Campus:

Population = 500
Volume of water = 120 lpcd x 500 persons = 60000 liters/day
Capacity of the tank = 75000 gallons = 75000x3.785 liters
= 283875 liters
No. of days for which this capacity will serve the given population
= 283875 liters / 60000 liters/day
= 4.7 days ( say 4 days )
Now
head of water at faucets of ground floor = (75- 4)ft = 71 ft
Pressure of water at ground floor =71x 0.433 psi =30.7 psi
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Capacity and elevation of overhead water tank of Bannu Campus:

Pressure of water at first floor =(75-15=60)x 0.433 psi =25.9 psi
Pressure of water at 2nd floor =(75-26=49)x0.433 psi = 21.2 psi
Does the pressure meat the required desirable limit?
{Residential water pressure tends to range between 45 and 80 psi (pounds per
square inch). Anything below 40 psi is considered low and anything below 30 psi is
considered too low; the minimum pressure required by most codes is 20 psi.
Pressures above 80 psi are too high. Whereas low water pressure is more of a
nuisance than a serious problem (some fixtures, like washing machines, have
minimum pressure requirements), high water pressure carries with it a significantly
increased risk of damage to pipes, joints, fixtures and seals}

Yes the pressure even at 2nd floor meats the required minimum
value of 20psi.